Lentil yields were poor in 2004 due to dry conditions, mainly through October, combined with high temperatures and frost during the reproductive period. Trial data were unreliable for many sites and variety selection should be based on long term data. Disease was not a major issue in 2004 but seed from the Horsham trial site had high levels of infection by ascochyta blight and diligence must be maintained in disease management.

Note: CIPAL203 was resistant to botrytis grey mould and ascochyta blight and is suited to medium rainfall areas such as the Wimmera. CIPAL411 and CIPAL415 have improved salt tolerance. CIPAL402 is moderately resistant to botrytis grey mould and ascochyta blight and is a larger seed size than Matilda.

• Nugget has been the highest yielding variety in Victoria in long term variety comparisons.
• Botrytis grey mould and ascochyta blight are major threats to the yield and quality of the Australian lentil crop.
• Digger and Cassab have the best resistance to botrytis grey mould. Northfield is the only variety with seed resistance to ascochyta blight but it is the variety most susceptible to botrytis grey mould.
• Northfield, ILL7685 and ILL6788 are more tolerant to salinity in glasshouse studies and were the highest yielding lines at Birchip where EC levels were high.

When selecting a variety, growers also need to consider their individual farm and paddock situation and the access and availability of likely target markets and to make their selection on all available information.

•  All results need to be treated with caution, due the dry conditions, frosts and weed burden at the trial site. Similar to previous research PBA Hurricane XT showed tolerance to imidazolinone herbicides and improved tolerance compared with PBA Jumbo2 to sulfonylureas and sulfonamide herbicides. Flowering applications, as expected generally had the most significant reduction on grain yield. The improved weed control in several of the herbicide treatments meant that significant yield gains were commonly observed in the herbicide treatments. 
   

• Applications of metribuzin PSPE significantly reduced lentil establishment compared to IBS and the untreated control (see Figure 1 in attached trial report summary).  Across all varieties and sowing depths, establishment following the PSPE application was 75 plants/m2 while the IBS and untreated treatments had a plant establishment of 100 plants/m2.  Damage following PSPE application of metribuzin was particularly severe in the PBA Hurricane XT lentils.  The 4 node treatment had similar establishment to the control as the in crop herbicide treatment had not been applied at the time of the establishment assessment. 
• See attached trial report summary for further results and interpretations.

• PBA Jumbo2 showed significant herbicide damage from all the herbicide treatments except applications of up to ‘r2’ of ‘HTGpC-D’, ‘r2’ of ‘HTGpC-H’ and ‘r1’ of ‘HTGpC-F’ at the four node stage.
• The new genotype ‘LGPC’ had no significant herbicide injury from any herbicide treatment except ‘HTGpC-A’.
• Both genotypes showed the highest sensitivity to application of ‘HTGpC-A’ at the four node stage.
• Grain yield results should be interpreted with caution due to very dry seasonal conditions and yield loss in ‘LGPC’ due to seed shattering. 

Good October rains and mild weather in spring ensured relatively high yields, especially in the Mallee, and good whole seed quality. However, there were several cases of poor quality seed from late infection by ascochyta blight. Growers are urged to treat seed for sowing in 2006 with a fungicide seed dressing and remain vigilant in controlling this disease.

Managing brome grass populations in wheat is a challenge facing many growers, however chemical and variety control options have improved over the years with the introduction of Clearfield wheat technology and now metribuzin tolerant wheats.

There was a 0.6 t/ha response to fertiliser, but no response to molybdenum (Mo) or lime. Plant tissue analysis showed that sodium molybdate (Na2MoO4) was effective applied as a seed dressing or banded with Flexi-N. The high Mo levels in these treatments indicate that application rates were much higher than needed. Grain analysis results confirmed that Mo was not limiting. Grain protein was about 9.0%, hectolitre weights 80 kg/hl, and screenings 3% in all treatments.

• Modest autumn grazing of no-till crop stubbles sometimes leads to small measurable increases in surface soil bulk density.
• In two seasons, on soils in the Mallee and Wimmera, modest autumn grazing of no-till crop stubbles had no measurable effect on crop yield, quality or weed seed burial.

Light to moderate grazing of sheep on no-till stubbles in autumn is unlikely to have detrimental impacts on crop growth in the following season.

• For a list of variety informaiton and yield results, please see the attached trial report.
• Some of these varieties are feed varieties and some are suitable for malt production. Please check with your seed supplier for this information. Also check on maturity and disease resistance before making a decision. 

• No till treatments have been higher yielding and more profitable in continuous cropping rotations. Cultivation has increased yield and profit in 18 month fallow rotations.
• Two cereals followed by a break crop of either fieldpeas or canola no till has been the most profitable rotation. Interestingly 16 years continuous wheat has not been too far behind.
• Weed spectrum and numbers have changed dramatically within rotations and tillage methods. Interestingly no till treatments have hosted less weeds than cultivated treatments.
• One year of no pre emergent herbicide has taken the trial back 6 years and allowed large numbers of ryegrass to again become established and set seed.

• After 18 years there was no standout rotation, in terms of profitability, in any given season. All  rotations had their pros and cons in both wet and dry years. Therefore having a mix
  of rotations and doing things on time is a recipe for a resilient business.
• The most profitable rotation for the duration of the trial was the continuous cropping rotation, which included two wheat crops followed by a pulse crop in a no-till system. The addition of the pulse crop every third year was beneficial, especially for adding extra nitrogen, however added issues such as broadleaf weed blowouts with weeds like fumitory.

• No till treatments, for all rotations, were slightly higher yielding than the conventional tillage
  treatments for wheat. The yield of peas, in rotation 2, was very low in this trial as a result of
  the season and Sakura damage.
• Rotations including a fallow, such as the WFW treatment, had lower weed numbers compared
  to continuous cropped rotations. The continuous wheat rotation, both conventional and no till
  treatments, had a large number of ryegrass, even with Sakura.
• Profit and income for 2015 was highest in the no till wheat/ley/fallow/wheat rotation, and lowest in Rotation 2.
• 17 years of no till wheat on wheat is still second for profitability.

This first year study has shown that the adoption of a strategic tillage practice (one-way plough) provided a significant improvement in terms of crop establishment and grain yields on a moderately repellent sandy gravel. The adoption of other agronomic options, such as paired-row sowing or wetters, in this instance did not provide any noticeable improvement in comparison to the control treatments. In fact, in one case (wetter 1), the cost of the treatment was not covered by the yield increase.

Without doubt, the tillage proved to be the most effective treatment for reducing SWR but at this stage it is not possible to evaluate the extent to which this improvement alone contributed to the significant increase in yields.

With this long term experiment, we expect the following seasons to give us more information to better understand what changes drive the yield increase and possibly the potential longevity of these improvements.

• Since this trial began in 2003, there has been no significant economic response to applied P. The most profitable treatment over five years was where either no P or 5kg P/ha had been applied.
• If considering reducing P rates in 2008, it is important that the amount of P that has been applied and removed over a 3-4 year period is calculated. If the P removal is not greater than P inputs then you can consider reducing P rates.
• The 5kg P/ha rate maintained a neutral P balance after the 5 years, whereas the control had a negative balance of just under 20kg P/ha. The higher rate treatments failed to utilize applied P and subsequently accumulated a positive balance greater than 20kg P/ha.

• Autumn removal of lucerne significantly decreased subsequent winter crop yields compared to spring removal of lucerne.
• Crops sown after spring removal of lucerne yielded the same as the crops grown in a continuous crop rotation.
• The crop yield penalty from autumn removal only lasts for one year.
• Apart from Grazon, all other herbicide treatments gave unacceptable lucerne control.
• Cultivation in combination with other herbicides will increase lucerne control by  20 to 30%. 
   

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Each foliar spray plot had a yield higher than the control. Blackjakyielded the highest followed by Sumisclex, then Bravo. 

• Metribuzin did demonstrate good crop safety on several varieties in 2010, which indicates it may be relatively safe for the late control of wild radish in some lupin varieties.
• However, 2010 was an incredibilly ‘soft’ finish which allowed plants to make unchecked compensatetory growth after the herbicide was applied.
• These trials will be repeated in 2011.

• Pasture cropping across subtropical grasses is viable in the West Midlands but success is dependent on effective weed control, adequate fertility and moisture, and winter dormancy (or suppression) of the perennial pasture.
• Pasture cropping can also provide out of season fodder, improve the feed value of stubbles, and reduce the likelihood of wind erosion and groundwater recharge on deep sandy soils.

• Lupin establishment was strongly affected by seed depth and by the herbicide application treatment.  In all treatments except metribuzin applied PSPE, plant density was higher at a sowing depth of 3 cm rather than 6 cm. The IBS application of metribuzin reduced plant density for both sowing depths, however the PSPE application only reduced density for the 3cm depth. In  comparison to the untreated plot.
• There was a significant herbicide treatment by sowing depth interaction on the visual herbicide damage score ( Figure ). The greatest damage was observed where lupins were sown at 6 cm and metribuzin was applied IBS.  However, with a damage score of 10-15, the symptoms were only slight with the effects reversable.  This was reflected in grain yield as overall there was no significant effect of the treatments, seeding depth or variety.  The mean grain yield for all treatments was 0.75 t/ha. 

There was no significant differences in grian yields resulting form the different lime sources, across any of the years within the trial, regardless of variety.

Soil pH data collected in 2019 show and increase in soil pH for all lime treatments in the topsoil (0-10CM) and 10-20cm, from the original data collection in 2015, at the beginning of the trial. 

Soil pH changes in 20-30cm layer have been negligible compared to the untreated control over six years. 

This trial shows that the addition of lime has improved soil pH to a depth of 20cm. The lack of improvement in grain yields over the nil control indicates that initial soil pH levels at this site were not low enough to be a constrain to grains yields.   

• The Seeder Demonstration enabled a large number of farmers to see and compare a wide range of seeding equipment in the one paddock on the same day.
• Machine depth and accuracy of seed placement affected plant establishment.
• A germination test is a simple process and can result in significantly better plant establishment.
• An incorrectly calibrated or set-up precision seeder will result in poor germination rates and potentially reduced yield.
• A well calibrated and set-up conventional seeder or knife point and press wheel seeder will result in good plant establishment rates and good yields.
• Cultivation had a negative effect on plant establishment.
• Prickle Chaining had a negative effect on plant establishment.
• Precision Seeders showed better plant establishment due to better seed placement, however this did not uniformly translate into a yield benefit.

• Allowing weeds to grow during summer reduced subsequent wheat yield by more than 50 percent
• Provided summer weeds were controlled, other surface treatments (slashed stubble, standing stubble, cultivation, bare earth) had little effect on crop yield
• Controlling summer weeds is one of the most cost-effective input investments available to growers in the Mallee, returning $5 for every $1 invested in this demonstration.

In years with high summer rainfall, growing break crops is low risk and is an effective management strategy for reducing weeds, while growing profitability. Two year breaks are better than one at achieving favourable returns and reducing brome grass populations. The best brome grass control and gross margins were achieved by two year rotations of Clearfield canola/vetch and continuous Clearfield wheat followed by wheat.

Variety choice was the management decision with the highest impact on grain yield and gross income compared to other management considerations.

•  Glyphosate was unable to control glyphosate resistant annual ryegrass on fencelines.
• Addition of other herbicides to glyphosate products improved control, but was still not effective.
• Two applications of Spray.Seed, Spray.Seed plus diuron or Alliance were the best registered treatments. 
   

• At present, group A herbicide resistance in barley grass is relatively low at a district level on the EP. However, growers need to act now to integrate multiple control tactics to prolong the effectiveness of these cheap and effective herbicides.
• In the absence of group A herbicides, it is still possible to achieve large reductions in barley grass seed bank in a legume pasture phase.
• When using moderate efficacy-low cost herbicides (Treflan + Logran) for barley grass control in wheat, effective control of the weed in previous pasture phase was critical.

• Increasing incidence of barley grass in cropping paddocks in southern Australia is likely to be associated with selection of more dormant biotypes by weed management practices used by growers.
• In some districts, barley grass management is now being complicated by the evolution of group A resistance. However, there appear to be several effective potential herbicide alternatives for barley grass control in broadleaf crops.
• Integrated weed management strategies are critical to delay onset of herbicide resistant barley grass.

• Rhizoctonia sererity was low in 1993.
• Cultivation of dry soil did not reduce the impact of rhizoctonia.
• Shallow sowing (2.5cm) may predispose plant roots to rhizoctonia.

At Kinnabulla, the best reduced tillage system to control rhizoctonia and increase yield was to cultivate, 5 to 10 cm below seed depth, in the week before sowing.

• The key to long term Rhizoctonia disease control is to keep inoculum in the soil low in the crop and pasture phases and increase the ability of crops to tolerate the infection (create environments where plant infection is reduced and plant tolerance to infection improved).
• The success of available disease control strategies, e.g. soil disturbance, fertilizer addition or fungicides is greatest at low to medium inoculum levels and their effectiveness declines as inoculum levels increase or where disease suppressive activity is low.
• Overall, effective control of rhizoctonia disease in cereal crops requires both the reduction of the pathogen inoculum in the soil prior to seeding and control of the infection process in the crop itself. This has to be achieved through management practices spread over more than one cropping season and through an integrated management strategy.

(i) Managing slug populations is unlikely to be successful unless both cultural and chemical control strategies are used. (ii) Research has found burning, light cultivation and rolling improves slug control. (iii) Control measures must be carried out before slug damage is observed. (iv) Paddocks with a previous history of slug damage are always a good place to start monitoring in a susceptible crop like canola. (v) Slug bait should be applied at a rate to provide sufficient bait points per m2 relative to slug populations in the paddock. (vi) Check the accuracy of your bait spreader to make sure there is an even distribution of bait across the spreading width. This width may not be the same as the width you spread urea. (vii) Identify slug species present in a paddock for the most effective control. Different species demonstrate different behaviours.

• Snail management is a three phase operation, occurring post harvest, during the growing season and at harvest.
• Knowing how many snails of each type and size are present is critical if appropriate management is to be applied.
• Snail density - above 30/m2 bait should be applied.

• Incorrect identification could be costly as with Take all and Crown rot require different management.
• Check the bases of plants for symptoms, don’t rely on whiteheads (which need not even be disease related).
• Even where whiteheads are not present, significant yield losses can occur.
• Know the risk of yield loss in your paddocks before sowing. For 2012 crops, this will mean sending summer/autumn soil samples to the Predicta B testing service for analysis.
• The most effective management tool for both diseases is host-free breaks.
• Where old cereal rows have medium to high inoculum levels, sowing between those old rows can reduce yield losses from these diseases, but only if the inter-row has low levels of inoculum.
• When Take-all inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a 12 month break from hosts. If susceptible cereals must be sown, keep the paddock(s) weed free and sow the atrisk paddock(s) last in the cereal cropping program.
• When crown rot inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a break from hosts (2-3 years may be needed). If cereals must be sown then barley is least likely to show yield loss, followed by oats and bread wheat. Do not apply excessive nitrogen early in the season.

Barley can be successfully grown on retained wheat stubble, but it is advisable to burn wheat stubble when growing wheat on wheat. If stubble is retained then Yellow Leaf Spot can be a devastating disease in a wet winter. The most important management practices when growing a cereal on cereal are as follows:

• Select paddocks with low numbers of grass weeds.
• Retain wheat stubble for barley, burn the stubble for wheat.
• Control summer weeds to ensure summer rainfall can be used by the crop.
• Use varieties with good disease resistance such as Silverstar or Krichauff.
• Disease - select paddocks with low disease pressure (monitor the previous crop) and DNA test the paddock prior to sowing.
•  Apply sufficient nitrogen for a good crop (soil test to know how much to apply).
• Barley on barley can lead to serious problems with leaf diseases such as net blotch.

• Two seasons of trials have demonstrated there are differences in crop vigour / biomass production within open pollinated varieties ATR Stingray (less competitive) and ATR Bonito (more competitive) relative to a competitive hybrid variety Hyola559TT.
• In 2017, at Hart and Roseworthy both OP and hybrid varieties provided similar crop competition for ryegrass control.
• A combination of effective pre-emergent herbicides with competitive canola varieties combines two tactics to reduce ryegrass seed set.

• Ryegrass seed production was reduced by more than 50% for the hybrid cultivar compared to open-pollinated.
• Pre-simazine or pre-propyzamide/simazine with post-atrazine, were more effective than herbicide strategies that relied just on pre-emergent herbicides.
• Combination of effective pre-emergent herbicides with competitive canola cultivars of canola can significantly reduce ryegrass seed set.

Whilst most of the herbicide strategies in field peas and canola were effective against ryegrass, resistant-survivors still were present late in the season. The seed set contribution of these individuals to the seedbank will not be fully realised until seedbank sampling is again undertaken in April of this year.

Whilst most of the herbicide strategies in field peas and canola were effective against ryegrass, resistant-survivors still were present late in the season. The seed set contribution of these individuals to the seedbank will not be fully realised until seedbank sampling is again undertaken in April of this year.

• Early sown (10th April) SQP Revenue was significantly more responsive than Manning to a programme of agrichemicals for foliar disease and Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus control (BYDV)
• Ungrazed SQP Revenue gave a significant 0.66 t/ha response to a two spray fungicide programme and a further 0.28 t/ha response to an additional insecticide programme for BYDV control, compared to a maximum response of 0.39 t/ha for both fungicide and insecticide for Manning
• Simulated grazing did not significantly reduce yield with either cultivar and gave an average dry matter benefit of 1.89 t/ha with laxed grazing at GS16 & GS30 and 2.39 t/ha with laxed grazed followed by a hard grazing at the GS30
• Leaf rust Puccinia triticina which was the principal disease in the trial was at significantly higher levels in SQP Revenue than Manning and required two foliar fungicides to give control
• In SQP Revenue grazing was not an effective control measure for leaf rust control compared to an early GS31 fungicide when assessed at flag leaf
• At the Westmere site, simulated grazing reduced grain yield by 0.2-0.5 t/ha compared to 1.7 t/ha dry matter removed by grazing
• Low levels of disease at this site did not allow the hypothesis that grazing reduces disease pressure to be tested. 

• Know the risk of yield loss from eyespot before sowing a cereal - inspect stem bases (lodging does not always occur) in a previous cereal crop or take soil samples pre-sowing and submit them to PREDICTA B for analysis.
• When selecting varieties with some resistance to eyespot, check their susceptibility to leaf/stem diseases to ensure they are not very susceptible to diseases such as stem rust.
• Where eyespot pressure is low, varietal resistance alone will assist in reducing yield losses, but at medium to high level eyespot pressure, resistance alone may not be sufficient to provide good protection from eyespot.
• Varieties with weak straw strength are more likely to lodge if affected by eyespot.
• If applying fungicides for eyespot control - use the correct rate; apply before canopy closure (GS30-31); use high water rates; target the plant base (note that Aviator® Xpro® @ 500mL/ha is registered for eyespot control).

The occurrence of frost and subsequent frost damage to grain crops is a complex phenomenon. The factors affecting frost damage in wheat crop include seasonal conditions (temperature, humidity, and wind), soils characteristics (topography, soil type), variety (maturity and flowering window) and agronomic management (sowing date, row spacing, and seed and fertiliser inputs). In 2012, frost had significantly damaged and reduced the grain yield for all varieties at two different sowing dates at Wickepin. On average the later sowings (8 June) yielded 1 t/ha greater than the earlier sowings (18 May). Comparatively longer season varieties such as Magenta and Calingiri flowered late, avoided some of frost damage and yielded the highest at both sowings. Preliminary results indicate varieties differed in their relative performance and resilience (i.e. ability to yield) in response to stresses of radiant frosts in both time of sowings. More comprehensive results on variety performance and frost damage will be available after measuring grain quality and sterility estimates.

• Cropping frequency and ryegrass resistant to Group A herbicides have mutually increased in HRZ
• Long-term management of Group A-resistant ryegrass can be achieved where appropriate crop phases and herbicide strategies are utilised; the first year is crucial when weed density is highest
• Seasonal influences can impact management, ryegrass is a prolific seed producer and failure to provide effective control in wetter years (i.e. 2016) can lead to large rebound in weed infestation; consider tactics like crop-topping and windrow burning that offer an opportunity to reduce seed set

For further information please see the attached trial report.

• 40 kg N/ha applied upfront was the best yielding treatment for 2015, with the best protein results where the 40 Kg of N was applied as Urea.
• We found that 20 kg N/ha applied as a Zn enriched Urea product achieved a yield close to 40 kg N/ha as straight urea and we plan to test this treatment again in 2016.
• The timing and form of S application did not have any effect in 2015.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• Attention to detail regardless of ryegrass control strategy, is important to ensure ryegrass seed set is minimised.
• Ryegrass numbers can be reduced from very high levels by implementing successive years of control, regardless of the tactics utilised.
• In favourable seasons low ryegrass plant numbers that are left uncontrolled have the ability to set prolific amounts of seed.

• Maintaining ryegrass seedbanks at low levels is critical due to the weeds competitive nature and ability to rapidly evolve resistance

• Effective management strategies in a canola and wheat cropping rotation can provide long-term management of Group A resistant ryegrass

• This trial was conducted in Victoria; varieties and some technologies utilised in this trial are not registered for use in South Australia.

The results have clearly shown that effective soil residual herbicides used in combination with timely applications of POST glyphosate in RT-canola can provide acceptable control of Group A resistant ryegrass. Ability to reduce seed set and seedbank replenishment in this initial phase of 2-year break is crucial to long-term management of ryegrass, particularly given that wheat is to follow and weed
control will rely on the few effective pre-emergent herbicides available.

• Incorporating seed behind press wheels resulted in the best crop establishment and one of the higher yields.
• A split application of seed, some broadcast in front of the seeder and some sown through the seeding boots shows promise.
• Soil wetters were ineffective for increasing emergence or grain yield.

• There was no yield response to Mn fertiliser.
• Plant and seed testing confirmed that this site had no requirement for Mn fertiliser, but they did show increased Mn levels with increasing supply.
• Claying in 2008 probably reduced the likelihood of Mn deficiency by improving soil moisture relations and therefore Mn availability.

• Summary of 8 experimentsover 3 seasons esperiments for esperance sandplain.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Soil deep siliceous grey sands 

• Dtpa Mn < 3.5 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 1.3 - 1.6 t/ha

• hence no determination on methods of placement were possible

• Summary of 2 experimentsover 3 seasons esperiments on  sandplain soils.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Soil grey sands Deep phase gibson sand

• Dtpa Mn < 4.0 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 3.5 -3.75 t/ha

• hence no determination on methods of placement were possible for wheat

• Summary of 2 experiments over 5 seasons esperiments.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Wheat showed no response to freshly applied and previously applied Mn fertiliser

• Soil grey sands Deep phase gibson sand

• Dtpa Mn < 4.0 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 3.5 -3.75 t/ha

• hence no determination on either methods of placement were possible for wheat

• Mn concentration in young leaves > 20 mg/ka & Mn concentration in grain > 30 both from nil Mn 

• Nor residual value fot wheat could be determined

 

• Summary of 8 experimentsover 3 seasons esperiments for west Midlands sandplain.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Soil deep siliceous grey sands 

• Dtpa Mn < 3.0 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 1.25 - 1.75 t/ha

• hence no determination on methods of placement were possible

• Summary of 2 experimentsover 3 seasons esperiments on  sandplain soils.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Soil grey sands with little gravel

• Dtpa Mn < 4.0 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 2.5 -2.75 t/ha

• hence no determination on methods of placement were possible for wheat

Early sowing (15 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2014, similar to results observed in 2013. Sowing on 15 April improved yields up to 45%, depending on variety, compared to 13 May sowing date. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate proved important in maximising canola yield at the sites trialled in 2014, but not to the same extent as time of sowing. Sowing at 4.5 kg/ha at a 2 cm depth gave a 13% yield improvement over sowing at 1.5 kg/ha at 1 cm depth. Achieving approximately 50 plants/m2 of triazine tolerant varieties and 40 plants/m2 of Clearfield tolerant varieties was needed to maximise canola yields in trials conducted at Minnipa Agricultural Centre in 2014. Using farmer retained open pollinated seed did not cause a yield penalty when compared to commercially purchased seed in trials conducted at Minnipa in 2014.

Early sowing (15 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2014, similar to results observed in 2013. Sowing on 15 April improved yields up to 45%, depending on variety, compared to 13 May sowing date. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate proved important in maximising canola yield at the sites trialled in 2014, but not to the same extent as time of sowing. Sowing at 4.5 kg/ha at a 2 cm depth gave a 13% yield improvement over sowing at 1.5 kg/ha at 1 cm depth. Achieving approximately 50 plants/m2 of triazine tolerant varieties and 40 plants/m2 of Clearfield tolerant varieties was needed to maximise canola yields in trials conducted at Minnipa Agricultural Centre in 2014. Using farmer retained open pollinated seed did not cause a yield penalty when compared to commercially purchased seed in trials conducted at Minnipa in 2014.

Early sowing (15 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2014, similar to results observed in 2013. Sowing on 15 April improved yields up to 45%, depending on variety, compared to 13 May sowing date. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate proved important in maximising canola yield at the sites trialled in 2014, but not to the same extent as time of sowing. Sowing at 4.5 kg/ha at a 2 cm depth gave a 13% yield improvement over sowing at 1.5 kg/ha at 1 cm depth. Achieving approximately 50 plants/m2 of triazine tolerant varieties and 40 plants/m2 of Clearfield tolerant varieties was needed to maximise canola yields in trials conducted at Minnipa Agricultural Centre in 2014. Using farmer retained open pollinated seed did not cause a yield penalty when compared to commercially purchased seed in trials conducted at Minnipa in 2014.

Early sowing (15 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2014, similar to results observed in 2013. Sowing on 15 April improved yields up to 45%, depending on variety, compared to 13 May sowing date. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate proved important in maximising canola yield at the sites trialled in 2014, but not to the same extent as time of sowing. Sowing at 4.5 kg/ha at a 2 cm depth gave a 13% yield improvement over sowing at 1.5 kg/ha at 1 cm depth. Achieving approximately 50 plants/m2 of triazine tolerant varieties and 40 plants/m2 of Clearfield tolerant varieties was needed to maximise canola yields in trials conducted at Minnipa Agricultural Centre in 2014. Using farmer retained open pollinated seed did not cause a yield penalty when compared to commercially purchased seed in trials conducted at Minnipa in 2014.

• Early sowing had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2013. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate were also important in maximising canola yields, but not to the same extent as time of sowing.

• Grain yield of field peas sown at Hart in 2010 averaged 2.5t/ha across all varieties.
• No time of sowing response was observed in 2010.
• Early sown plots with uncontrolled blackspot showed a 35% yield loss compared to the optimum control (fortnightly chlorothalonil), which yielded 3.6t/ha.
• Prospective releases OZP0703 and OZP0903 show a lot of promise, with OZP0703 performing similarly to Kaspa and OZP0903 yielding 10% greater.
• Chlorothalonil (Bravo), pyraclostrobin (Cabrio) and azoxystrobin plus chlorothalonil (Amistar Opti) increased yields compared to the nil treatment with disease pressure.

There is a difference between maximising biomass and the optimal biomass for maximum yield in a particular environment.

Maximising biomass creates agronomic problems such as increased foliar disease and early weed competition.

Irrigation can supply moisture during grain fill but cannot control the temperature - many of the winter wheats mature too late to avoid heat stress during grain fill. 

There is a difference between maximising biomass and the optimal biomass for maximum yield in a particular environment.

Maximising biomass creates agronomic problems such as increased foliar disease and early weed competition.

Irrigation can supply moisture during grain fill but cannot control the temperature - many of the winter wheats mature too late to avoid heat stress during grain fill. 

• In year 1 of this experiment, we demonstrated that genetically diverse wheat cultivars performed differently in two locations with varying rainfall patterns. Significant differences in crop biomass, LAI, weed count and biomass between  cultivars was also location dependent. These results show that although weed suppression in wheat is influenced by genotype, the genotypic response in wheat is clearly influenced by environmental factors as well, when it comes to growth, yield and weed suppression. However, certain cultivars were excellent performers in both locations in terms of weed suppression and crop yields and these included Espada and Condo and to a lesser extent Janz. Additional results will be obtained from metabolomic analyses to evaluate both primary and secondary biosynthetic pathways operational in crop genotypes and to determine if these pathways influence weed suppression in either location over time. The role of hydroxamic acids in weed suppression will be further examined in detail through targeted metabolic profiling in both soils and plant tissue. Additional field experiments will be repeated over the next 3 years to determine impacts of year and location upon wheat cultivar performance and weed suppression.

• Long term gross margin data shows conventional tillage to be more profitable than minimum tillage.
• Long term gross margin data also shows that continuous wheat and rotation l are the most profitable rotations.
• No-tillage into a long fallow situation is significantly less profitable than conventional tillage, by $147.oo/ha. This is not the case with no tillage into a stubble situation which is not significantly different to conventional tillage.
• A major factor determining the profitability of the no tillage treatment is effective weed control.
• The threat of root diseases, such as Rhizoctonia, is now at a high risk level in the continuous wheat rotation, particularly under no tillage, whereas the risk is minimal in other rotations. 

• Proper rotations (irrespective of tillage methods) incorporating no more than two cereal crops in sequence with the addition of either a break crop or a fallow once in every three years is ideal. This rotation allows a very productive and sustainable farming system in our environment.
• The most profitable system since 1999 has been two years of cereal followed by a break crop such as peas under no till.
• No till systems are now becoming more profitable in the trial than cultivated systems under every rotation.
• No till will work on our problem soils so long as effective weed control is achieved.
• Under a continuous cereal rotation, the impact of weeds, diseases, poor nutrition and subsequently lower yields has lowered profitability

• No-till has performed on average 5% higher in yield and increased profits over cultivated farming systems in continuous cropping rotations.
• Adding cultivation to the system has increased both yield and profit in the 18 month fallow rotations.
• Thirteen years of continuous wheat has produced the most grain per hectare, closely followed by a wheat–barley–field pea rotation.

• Soil application of zinc sulphate heptahydrate and zinc oxide increased grain yield of maize when applied in drills near the seed.
• Spray application of zinc also increased yield but to a lesser extent.
• Spray applications of zinc following soil application of zinc sulphate or zinc oxide did not give further yield increases.
• Zinc oxide dusting of seed appears to be a promising remedial technique.

• All cultivars gave their highest yield under higher fungicide and nitrogen input (High input management), but cultivars differed in their response to increasing input with Westminster being the least responsive (1.69t/ha increase from low to high input) and Oxford the most responsive (3.09t/ha).
• RGT Planet was the highest yielding cultivar, although its advantage over Westminster was only apparent at higher levels of input, under low input both yielded similarly.
• Disease control resulting from the later fungicide application at GS37 and GS59 was strongly implicated in the yield differences, particularly between low and standard input where there was no difference in N input.
• Disease (net form of net blotch) in Oxford was uncontrollable in this trial even under high input where yield was maximised.
• RGT Planet, RGT Conquest and Westminster showed no significant difference in grain protein across the three management levels, whilst the proteins of Granger and Oxford decreased as yield increased from low to high input.
• Granger and RGT Planet recorded the lowest grain screenings. There was no significant effect of management level on screenings with these two cultivars or Westminster.
• In contrast, Oxford and Conquest that gave the largest responses to higher input showed significant decreases in grain screenings as input was increased.
• The devastating effect of NFNB on Oxford in this HRZ environment was very evident in both yield and screening results. As later fungicide input was removed from the management program so was the yield with significant reductions in yield and increased screenings.
• Under the lowest input RGT Planet and Westminster were significantly higher yielding than other cultivars tested.
• Under the highest input RGT Planet was significantly higher yielding than all other cultivars tested and produced the highest gross margins at each management level.
• With the very high disease pressure in this trial, the higher fungicide input associated with the High Input management made this the most cost effective management program of the Crop Technology Centre trials.
• As a result of higher disease pressure unlike wheat (Protocol 1) higher inputs of fungicide were generally more cost effective in barley sown early, irrespective of cultivar.

• Two Mackillop Farm Management Group trials were sown to evaluate two BYDV management options across four wheat varieties.
• High Rainfall zone growers should be pro-active and develop a BYDV management plan.
• Up to date disease guides should be consulted when selecting varieties.
• Growers are encouraged to check for aphids regularly, especially early in the season.

Mid-row banding nitrogen at 133 kgN.ha⁻¹ gave a similar response to topdressing the same rate at GS31. It increased yield by 1.38 t/ha and grain N by 38 kgN.ha⁻¹ to give an ANRE of 30%. Mid-row banded N created a highly-concentrated band of ammonium which appeared to mostly survive a water-logging event.

Mid-row banding N appears to be a valid application method for nitrogen in a southern Riverina irrigated context, allowing all nitrogen requirements to be placed in the soil at sowing. This is applicable where a higher yield potential is known with some confidence, and seeding equipment can handle larger amounts of fertilizer at sowing. Hence, it may also be a useful technique in higher rainfall zones, where yield potential is high and waterlogging is more common.

On heavier soil types with higher levels of organic matter, using a speed tiller to incorporate a wheat stubble may assist in increasing canola yields. If incorporation occurs immediately post-harvest, then the addition of nitrogen may not be required if the soil nitrogen levels are adequate. If incorporation is delayed and occurs immediately prior to sowing, then the addition of nitrogen should be considered.

• The repeated Gairdner control plots showed variation across the site and therefore it is difficult to draw conclusions from this data.
• All varieties yielded well – especially given the below average growing season rainfall.
• All varieties had low test weight. Low test weights were also observed at the Marnoo site. The Minyip and Marnoo sites both had lower growing season rainfall and had grain discolouration as a result of rain damage before harvest, compared to the Rupanyup sites. These factors may have contributed to low test weights at the Minyip & Marnoo sites (harvested January 3 and January 6, 2004 respectively). 
• All varieties had protein levels above the malt receival standards of 12%. The high protein coupled with high yields at this site suggests high soil nitrogen levels.

Experiment started in 1992 reddish brown sandy loam ; soil pH (CaCl2) of 5.7.

1992:

Small (15%)  response to limesand at 1.5 t/ha & to Mo application applied as sodium molybdate.

Nitrogen concentration of medic increased from 4.2 to 5% with Mo application @ 200g/ha, 1.5 & 3 t/ha limesand.

limesand with Mo did not increase yield or N content compared with 200 g of Na molybdate alone.

Critical Mo concentratin in clover tops appeared to be 0.09 mg/kg

Combination of lime sand (1.5 t/ha) and 200 g Na molybdate recommended: increased dry matter produced by 30% above the control.

3 t/ha limesand produced the same yield without Mo.

 

• On a low molybdenum soil the seed molybdenum concentration in the sown seed had no effect on the molybdenum concentration of the harvested seed.
• Application of nitrogen decreased seed molybdenum concentrations in a low molybdenum soil but not in an adequate molybdenum soil.

• Although the seed molybdenum content of maize is very low, there is a minimum critical level needed for healthy seedling growth.
• A seed molybdenum concentration of 0.02ppm is required for healthy seedling growth.
• Once the seedlings are established they become efficient extractors of molybdenum from soil.

UAV imagery with appropriate analysis has the potential to identify weed issues in paddocks quickly, reliably and cheaply over large areas.

• UAV imagery with skilled specialist analysis and programs has the potential to identify and map weed issues in paddocks.
• Grass weed patches are easier to identify in legume and pasture crops than cereal crops.
• Variability in germination and crop growth makes it harder to identify grass weed areas.
• Data capture and analysis for analytical purposes such as grass weed mapping in individual paddocks will be beyond the skills of most farm businesses unless farmers have a special interest in this area.
• Group A resistant barley grass has once again been detected at the Minnipa Agricultural Centre. Barley grass resistance to Group A herbicides has been detected three times in three years, so be aware it is present current farming systems.

• Six sites in north-east Victoria on acid duplex soils were sampled monthly to monitor manganese concentrations in soil and weed crops in relation to changing seasonal conditions.
• Cool and/or moisture conditions were associated with exchangeable manganese of less than 50 ppm.
• High concentrations of exchangeable manganese (120 – 250 ppm) were associated with waterlogging or prolonged hot dry conditions.
• The rate of increase in exchangeable manganese was greatest under waterlogged conditions in winter there was a lack of more than one month before significant increases were observed.
• Manganese concentrations in wheat tops reached 800 – 1200 ppm at the 3 sites most severely waterlogged during 1981.
• At the better drained sites the concentrations were less than 400 ppm.
• It seems that high levels of exchangeable manganese during summer have little effect on subsequent wheat crops.
• Waterlogging may result in increased concentrations of plant manganese but perhaps only in young plants or after prolonged exposure, by which time other effects of waterlogging may already have severely limited growth.

• Aim to bait from mid-March to mid-April before seeding, and consider baiting again immediately post seeding. This timing will increase bait efficacy, increase likelihood of conditions suitable for snail movement, and be timed before most snails lay eggs.
• Bait in autumn not summer even if there is a lot of summer rain as control from baits can be low during summer
• Relative humidity above 85% is when snails are most active, so plan baiting to be before forecast periods of extended high humidity. Throw out test area before baiting whole program to be sure.

• At both Yarrawonga and Dooke, Victoria, there was no yield response to nitrogen application, with yields of 4.34 and 3.88t/ha respectively.
• Although there was no yield response, there was a significantly higher dry matter (DM) production and greater nitrogen offtake as a result of applying nitrogen at both sites.
• The maximum nitrogen offtake in the unfertilised crops at both sites equated (approximately) to the level of available nitrogen at the start of the season during April (assessed 0-60cm).
• The normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) response assessed at first node stage (GS31) and the subsequent divergence of NDVI suggested that both sites would benefit from additonal nitrogen; however, late moisture stress and high temperatures compromised any potential yield response.
• The NDVI canopy scores taken at Dookie during October 2015 from the 120kg N/ha plots clearly show are more rapid senescence than unfertilised crops (control) or those crops fertilised with 60 kg N/ha.

The use of Monty’s Plant Food had no significant effect on wheat yield or quality.

• The trial at Morawa compared a canola-wheat sequence to a wheat-on-wheat sequence with either high or low input levels. Low input had lower fertiliser, lower seed density and cheaper herbicide options. We also incorporated a comparison of a very early wheat cultivar (Zippy) to a medium maturity cultivar (Wyalkatchem).
• Water use by the crop was estimated from the sum of the in-season rainfall and the change in soil water between sowing and harvest. By estimating the amount of soil evaporation as one third of in-season rainfall, we determined the amount of water used by the plant as transpiration. The ratio of crop yield to transpiration is the transpiration efficiency of the crop which has a potential of around 20-22 mm/kg/ha.
• The yield of Zippy was more stable than that of Wyalkatchem, but the earlier maturity resulted in a substantial yield penalty. Zippy yielded around 2 t/ha each year whereas Wyalkatchem responded more in better years. The yield penalty associated with the earlier maturing variety was not offset by the higher input level. Higher input actually increased the variability in annual gross margins.
• So far Wyalkatchem has a substantially greater cumulative gross margin than Zippy and there is little difference between the high and low input strategies.

• The trial at Morawa compared a canola-wheat sequence to a wheat-on-wheat sequence with either high or low input levels. Low input had lower fertiliser, lower seed density and cheaper herbicide options. We also incorporated a comparison of a very early wheat cultivar (Zippy) to a medium maturity cultivar (Wyalkatchem).
• Water use by the crop was estimated from the sum of the in-season rainfall and the change in soil water between sowing and harvest. By estimating the amount of soil evaporation as one third of in-season rainfall, we determined the amount of water used by the plant as transpiration. The ratio of crop yield to transpiration is the transpiration efficiency of the crop which has a potential of around 20-22 mm/kg/ha.
• The yield of Zippy was more stable than that of Wyalkatchem, but the earlier maturity resulted in a substantial yield penalty. Zippy yielded around 2 t/ha each year whereas Wyalkatchem responded more in better years. The yield penalty associated with the earlier maturing variety was not offset by the higher input level. Higher input actually increased the variability in annual gross margins.
• So far Wyalkatchem has a substantially greater cumulative gross margin than Zippy and there is little difference between the high and low input strategies.

• The older herbicide mixes of 25g/ha Logran and 25g/ha Logran + 800ml/ha LVE MCPA provided unsatisfactory levels of control whilst the new herbicides Velocity, Precept and the more robust Jaguar mixes provided far greater levels of control.
• Whilst the Jaguar treatments gave lower levels of control than the Precept or Velocity treatment, Jaguar has a heavier reli-ance on moisture and good growing conditions for better levels of control.
• This could explain the slightly lower levels o control with the Jaguar treatments.

• The older herbicide mixes of 25g/ha Logran and 25g/ha Logran + 800ml/ha LVE MCPA provided unsatisfactory levels of control whilst the new herbicides Velocity, Precept and the more robust Jaguar mixes provided far greater levels of control.
• Whilst the Jaguar treatments gave slightly lower levels of control than the Precept or Velocity treatments, Jaguar has a heavier reliance on moisture and good growing conditions for better levels of control.
• This could explain the slightly lower levels of control with the Jaguar treatments.

• Magenta and Baudin barley were the most competitive cultivars at Eradu, reducing ryegrass seed set by 65% compared to Wyalkatchem.  UA40 reduced ryegrass seed set by 51% which was a similar result to UA47, Mace and Bonnie Rock.  Leaf disease in UA47 reduced its competitive ability.  The cultivar UA39 is a very tall variety, and visually it appeared to significantly compete with ryegrass.  However, tiller counts and biomass measurements reveal that this cultivar is not as competitive as it appears. 
• While the UA cultivars may be useful as germplasm for future breeding programs, perhaps the most significant aspect of this research is the competitive ability of currently available cultivars.  Magenta is a high yielding, competitive wheat variety that is a useful tool for weedy paddocks.  Baudin Barley was very high yielding at Eradu and also very competitive with weeds.  This weed competition of barley is consistent with past research.  Future research will focus on ribbon / twin row seeding of competitive cultivars at higher seeding rates to maximise yield, profit and weed suppression.

• Summer weed control is proven to increase yield, but is becoming a major cost and some summer weeds are difficult to control.
• Cost savings of 20-90% were achieved across 20 paddocks using the WEEDit™.
• A major benefit of the Spot Spray Technology was the ability to use high rates of chemical to spot spray hard-to-kill weeds such as fleabane and stinkweed.

Crop topping timing and delayed harvest timing can reduce faba bean seed quality.
 

• The high level of grain yield response to soil inversion is very exciting.  However, some sites have had little or no yield response while others have achieved an excellent yield response.  The key to the future success of this technique is to improve our ability to pick responsive soil types to maximise the return on investment in this technology.
• The very high level of weed control, which in some cases has been maintained for two to three years, is also very exciting.  There is no doubt that a mouldboard plough has enormous potential to decimate a weed seed bank.  However, it is imperative that the plough is set up correctly to achieve good weed seed burial.  The Smart CV site is a good example of how it can go wrong.  This site was ploughed in a rush during seeding in 2010 with a tractor that was not ideally suited to the plough (ie. not enough horsepower).  Consequently, full soil inversion did not occur and many wild radish weed seeds were left in the topsoil.  The grower knew this at the time but persisted with the trial to test the potential of the plough.  This soil is extremely non-wetting and a very big yield response was achieved. 
• The Brennan site was established in 2009 at West Moora by Dave Gartner (AgLime) using the DAFWA three furrow plough to assess the potential for lime burial with a mouldboard plough.  The site is deep yellow sand with moderate to high water repellence (water droplet penetration time 180 seconds).  Treatment with the mouldboard plough corrected the water repellence (water droplet penetration time 0 seconds).  The site was sown to wheat in 2009 and canola in 2010.  Large yield responses were measured in both years.  As yet there has been no response to lime.
• In summary, all of the growers that have purchased mouldboard ploughs have been very happy with the performance of ploughed paddocks in 2010.  Using a plough to invert the soil of a sandy, poor performing paddock every 10 to 15 years appears to be a fast, effective and economical way of renovating a paddock back to a point of high production.  Of course this machinery will have its limitations and is not a universal panacea.  However, our early studies are very encouraging.  Research into this area is ongoing and will eventually answer some of the long term questions that continue to arise.
•  
• Some of the practicalities
• Most of the growers so far have accessed machinery directly from Europe and then shipped it to Australia in sea containers.  Some growers have purchased second hand ploughs for $30,000 to $50,000. These machines have been completely dissembled and cleaned to meet quarantine standards so there are many hours of assembly work involved.  Some growers have accessed new machines for $90,000 to $130,000 for 9 to 14 furrow machines.  The cheaper machines have sheer bolt break out while the more expensive machines have hydraulic break out.  Sheer bolt machines have their limitations when it comes to rocks and stumps but have performed well nonetheless.  All ploughs imported so far are reversible and so are suited to up and back ploughing.
• A fourteen furrow machine can be set to cut 5.5 to 7 metres.  They work to a depth of 30 to 35 cm at 8 to 10 kph.  So the large machines can plough 4.5 to 7 hectares per hour at a cost of $70 to $100 / hectare (these are figures from growers).  The power requirement is 30 to 35 hp per furrow depending on soil conditions and working depth.  In good conditions a 450 hp 4WD wheel tractor can pull a 14 furrow plough but it will struggle in low soil moisture conditions.  4WD tractors often have the problem of the wide dual wheels running over the furrow which affects the depth and form of the first furrow.  Track tractors are preferred for pulling large ploughs.
• The large ploughs (12 to 14 furrow) have mainly been set up with a tool carrier that allows them to be connected to a large tractor without three point linkage.  This allows the tractor to run on level ground.  The smaller ploughs (8 to 11 furrow) are typically pulled by front wheel assist tractors in the 300 to 350 hp range with three point linkage.  In this situation, one wheel of the tractor runs in the furrow.
• There is clearly a large wind erosion risk immediately after ploughing.  Paddocks should be sown to wheat for cover immediately after ploughing (preferably the same day).  Wheat is more acid tolerant than barley and in many cases a profitable crop can be grown in the year of ploughing.  Cereals are more tolerant to sand blasting than broadleaf crops and so are the obvious choice as a cover crop.  Pay careful attention to seeding depth as it is easy to sow deep into soft soil.  Rolling of the paddock is essential after ploughing unless your hobby is towing tractors out of bogs.  Some growers are spreading seed / fertiliser and then rolling with coil packers to establish the wheat cover crop.  Relatively light rolling (eg. coil packers) is all that is necessary to firm the top 5 to 10cm of soil after ploughing.