• The level of yellow leaf spot (YLS) control achieved with fungicides applied at tillering (GS22) and third node stage (GS31) in wheat-on-wheat was poor (less than 50% in most assessments).
• Fungicide applied at the third node stage (GS33) was more effective at preventing YLS infection on the top three leaves of the crop than when applied at tillering (GS22).
• Fungicide applied at the third node stage (GS33) generated a significant (0.44t/ha) yield increase over the untreated crop, whereas the equivalent fungicide applied at tillering (GS22) gave no yield benefit.
• Applying fungicide at both tillering (GS22) and third node stage (GS33) offered no advantage over a single application at GS33.
• Nitrogen application at tillering or first node had no effect on yield.
• There was no significant difference in product performance between Tilt and Prosaro.

• In a low-yielding situation at Coreen, Victoria (< 2.5t/ha) following a dry spring, plant growth regulator (PGR) application lead to a significatn yield reduction (0.14t/ha) in early-sown first wheat.
• PGR application significantly reduced crop height in both trials, but did not reduce crop canopy biomass, suggesting that crop biomass was redistrubuted, not recuced.
• The addition of extra nitrogen, over and above farm standard significantly increased grain protein but not yield
• PGR application significantly reduced the normalised difference vegetative index readings taken with Greenseeker, particularly where applicaiton was superimposed on lower amount of applied nitrogen.

The later maturing feed wheat Mackellar was significantly lower yield than the earlier AH category variety Chara, with mean yields of 2.35 and 2.52 t/ha respectively. Much of this difference was due to the poor performance of Mackellar under the seedbed nitrogen application, since when compared at the later nitrogen timing alone, the mean yields were 2.55 and 2.60t/ha for Mackellar and Chara respectively. Fertilising with upfront nitrogen had less detrimental effect on yield with an early maturing variety with lower tillering capacity than it did with later maturing wheat (Mackellar) that had a longer tillering window.

• Spray-seed drift during shielded spraying damaged the lupin plants in this trial.
• Lupins yielded well when sown in rows 50cm apart.

1. In dryland conditions, planting in February increased yield of dryland mungbeans by 475 kg/ha over December planting.
2. Irrigation treatments increased mungbean yields by a maximum of 298 kg/ha and 653 kg/ha (planted in February and December respectively).
3. Application of water during mid pod-fill increased grain yield in the December planting but not the February planting.

The success of break crops to increase wheat production in the Eastern Wheatbelt is dependent on firstly addressing any physical and chemical soil constraints to crop production and where the previous land use is a chemical fallow. In this situation, the grain yield of lupin, chickpea, lentil and field pea was 0.97-1.42 t/ha 0.67-1.1 t/ha, 0.3-0.97 t/ha, and 1.2 t/ha respectively in a below average season. The yield of wheat following legume break crops tended to be higher than either canola or wheat planted in the remaining paddock area. The profitability of double break-crop sequences was negative in many of the sequences evaluated in this study compared to a positive profit for continuous wheat. The profitability of double break-crop sequences can be improved by the inclusion of high value legumes as the second break-crop, but further work is required to lower the risk of growing these species of crops.The yield of wheat following legume break crops tended to be higher than either canola or wheat planted in the remaining paddock area. The profitability of double break-crop sequences was negative in many of the sequences evaluated in this study compared to a positive profit for continuous wheat. The profitability of double break-crop sequences can be improved by the inclusion of high value legumes as the second break-crop, but further work is required to lower the risk of growing these species of crops.

The trial will be going into its 3rd year in 2018 and all trial plots will be sown into wheat. The aim is to determine the difference in grain yield for wheat following a range of single or double break crop rotations, compared to continuous wheat. The site was established in 2016 on a paddock that had very high level of ryegrass that was affecting crop production. This area around this trial has been in pasture for 2017 as the comparison farmer solution for the issue.

On average, the surface retained treatments appeared to yield marginally better across this site. There appeared to be no difference in grain quality between treatments. There appeared to be no significant levels of insect pest or predator numbers in either the assessed standing stubble or the burnt treatment at the crop early emergence stage. There was however twice as many beneficial species in the stubble retained treatment. Insects that were present included both beneficial and harmful earwigs at very low levels, spiders and carabid beetles (that were of importance). Soil water data at crop anthesis indicates that the higher yielding treatments experienced lower soil moisture levels to 60cm, reflecting a possible increase in transpiration from greater crop biomass. Plant available water in the burnt and wider row treatments was higher, but not significantly different.

The data collected showed that even at the early stages of growth, there was no evidence of altered N uptake rates in the field experiments as a result of the amendments supplied with the urea.

• These data demonstrate a significant yield response to teh application of 20kg P/ha when compared to teh control. There were no yield differences to the various treatments. 
• The trial was moisture stressed in late spring but moderate grain protein levels indicate that the trial was not stressed for nitrogen. 
• Visually it was difficult to pick up any differences between treatments, however the poor growth control was very evident throughout the growing season and the Airseeder treatment appeared to lack early vigour, but at the end of the season this was not apparent. 
• The application of zinc as either foliar or as fertiliser at sowing (Granulock Supreme Z treatments) did not result in additional yield. 
• The liquid treatments did not prove to have any significant benefit over the solids fertilizer products; contradicting results from SFS Mininera trials in 2007 where liquid fertilisers proved to have distinct advantages as conpared to solids. 

• Early zinc uptake can be increased when zinc is applied as soil spray, seed coat or granular fertiliser but this does not necessarily increase yield.
• Products differ markedly in price per kg of elemental zinc so carefully consider your choice to get best value for money.
• Make sure choice of application method fits your farming system: for example if you are no-till then soil spray inefficient as not worked into root zone, foliar spray too late if you have zinc deficient soil as yield losses will already have occurred.
• Some products have short term benefits (seed coats and foliar sprays) and some longer term benefits.

Linseed is not new to Western Australia or the Great Southern region as it was grown in the Boyup Brook region from the 1940’s to the 1960’s. It was grown for fibre and milled at the Boyup Brook Flax Mill. Linseed (flax) Linum usitatissimum is a niche product and has the potential to offer an alternative revenue steam for producers outside of the traditional crop. Demand for Linseed has recently shifted to a health food. Linseed has several uses, it can be crushed for Linseed oil which is a rich source of linolic acid and Omega 3 fatty acid and the remaining linseed meal can then be used as livestock feed or it can also be eaten as a whole seed or ground.

Linseed also has agronomic benefits as a potential break crop that provides a disease break, the opportunity for alternative weed management strategies, provides an insect pest break and can be effective in reducing some soil borne root diseases and soil borne pathogens namely root lesion nematodes. Canadian research has demonstrated that cereal yields were higher when planted on linseed stubble compared to wheat stubble.

The aim of the project is to investigate agronomic packages which support the introduction and scale up of commercial cultivation of Linseed in the Great Southern region of Western Australia.

Consistent supply with volume is imperative to develop a market that has the ability to realise the full value of Linseed produced. Also, in order for growers to take up production it is important they have a full agronomic package available to grow the crop successfully. Finally, Linseed needs to generate an equivalent return per hectare of alternative rotational crops such as canola in order to expand into the rotation.

The key objectives of this project are:  

A: To determine if Linseed can be successfully grown under dryland farming conditions in the Great Southern region of Western Australia with the potential to scale up to commercial cultivation.

B: To determine if any investment is required into machinery and infrastructure by growers to grow linseed.

C: To develop basic agronomic guidelines to grow linseed in WA.

D: To assess the yield potential of two commercially available linseed varieties grown under dryland conditions in WA, Croxton and Bilton.

The project was conducted over two years in 2019 and 2020. In 2019 the trials were conducted in small plots across three sites. In 2020 the trials were conducted as producer demonstration sites utilising grower machinery and large-scale plots.

In 2019 three sites were located across the Great Southern Region of Western Australia covering a variety of soil types, climates, paddock histories and growing conditions. The trials sites were in the shires of Darkan, Wagin and Kojonup. The trials involved growing two commercially available varieties Croxton and Glenelg over three times of sowing (TOS) 10 to 14 days apart at three seeding rates (SR): 35, 40 and 45 kg/ha and applying three top dressed nitrogen application rates (low, optimal and high) 40, 80 and 120 units N/ha.

Over the three trial sites, the seeding rates and nitrogen application rates trialed did not consistently result in significant differences in grain yield or oil quantity and quality. Time of sowing had the greatest impact, with the earliest time of sowing generally resulting in higher grain yields. Glenelg on average had a higher grain yield and oil quantity, with Croxton having the highest oil quality.

Trial Site

Average Site Yield

t/ha

Darkan

0.562

Wagin

0.914

Kojonup

0.998

Table 1: Average Site Yields in 2019 (Below average rainfall)

The Darkan site plant counts were the highest, however this was not reflected in the yield. Darkan was the lowest yielding of the three sites. This may be due to the below average rainfall and lack of finishing rains experienced on the non-wetting forest gravel soils at this trial site. Kojonup and Wagin on average achieved nearly double the yield of the Darkan site despite lower plant counts and early plant disease.

In 2020 four demonstration/bulk up sites were established across the Great Southern Region covering a range of soil types, rainfall, rotations and growing conditions. The four sites were located in Katanning, Wagin, Darkan and Kojonup.

The methodology in the second year of the project was to bulk up the Linseed seed for future commercial production and to also integrate high level variety comparisons between the two varieties being utilized in the project Bilton and Croxton. Two sites, Wagin and Darkan, incorporated replicated plot treatments as a variety trial with the other 2 sites being predominantly bulk up sites.

The key outcome of any variety demonstration is the final yield result. Due to operational difficulties within the demonstration some yield data is not available however the key findings from the data available was:

• Bilton yielded on average 0.95 MT/Ha and 85% of Canola
• Croxton yielded on average 0.86 MT/Ha and 72% of Canola.
• Bilton out yielded Croxton on both sites.

The seasonal conditions may have contributed to Bilton out yielding Croxton. Bilton is a slightly shorter maturing variety and the below average rainfall received in 2020 is expected to have favoured shorter season varieties.

The project has successfully set in the place the ability for growers in the Great Southern region to scale up production of Linseed and demonstrated its ability to fit within the current rotations with the additional benefit of assisting in the long-term management of soil borne root pathogens.

However, for the scale up of the commercial cultivation of Linseed there is the requirement for beyond farm gate systems to be in place before producers will scale up production. An active market to determine a fair price, storage and handling facilities off farm to enable harvested grain to be stored before delivery to consumers, supply chains in place which enable efficient delivery of the grain anywhere around the world and long-term buyers/processors who will receive the grain year in year out. There is still a lot of process to be put in place before Linseed production will scale up to a considerable level.          

Grower adoption beyond the project has continued with over 60 Ha planted in southern WA in 2021 across 4 growers. Confidence in the supply chain beyond the farm gate remains as the major obstacle stopping increased uptake and requires addressing before increased production can be expected.

• Chelated iron applied to the soil before sowing increased active iron in leaves by 42% and dry matter by up to 46% early in the season.
• The 9% increase in grain yield following iron application to soil was not significant.
• Foliar iron had no significant on activeFe, leaf colour or photosynthesis.
• Lime induced iron chlorosis was suspected.

Response in barley seems to be variety dependent.

Early plant height reduction was noted in all varieties treated with Moddus Evo but had no effect on lodging.

Commander barley saw a yield increase with the use of Moddus Evo, but LatTrobe did not respond.

Off label high rates of triazole fungicides have to produced any PGR effects to date.

• Trial yields averaged 4.03 t/ha
• The performance of the various herbicide groups ranged from 3.2 t/ha  for the triazine tolerant varieties, 4.5 t/ha for the Clearfields, 4.6 t/ha for the conventionals and 4.8 t/ha for the Roundup Ready varieties.
• The early-mid to mid maturity varieties tended to be the highest yielding from an April 18th sowing.

Wimmera had the greatest yield loss in the presence of weeds and produced the highest weed yield. Hindmarsh also produced the same weed yield. Both of these varieties should not be sown into weedy paddocks unless there is a good management strategy. Scope, Buloke and Compass were identified as very competitive varieties, with the least amount of yield loss and weed seed production. Generally, the presence of weeds reduced barley yields by 1.4t/ha on a 5.4t/ha crop (mean of all varieties).

• Three field sites were sown with grass clover pasture and limed and 11 rates.
• Soils were also collected from lime treatments incubated for 2 months and then used to grow clover in the glasshouse.
• Increasing soil pH by liming decreased availability of manganese at all sites and in the glasshouse experiment.
• In the glasshouse experiment yields decreased on all soils at the higher lime rates.
• Diagnosis of manganese deficiency in sub clover is confounded by lack of a reliable critical value.
• If 20 mg/kg is taken as a critical concentration fulfilled run clover and flowering 2 of the experimental sites are nearing manganese deficiency at moderate line rates.
• Calcium chloride extractable manganese determined in the pot soils correlated well with planned manganese in the youngest open leaf.

This quick look at rainfall patterns does not prove whether there is, or isn’t, a change t to farming in the dry mid 1990s nwards. High rates of N and no fallowing worked during the wet periods but have ot worked very well in the last decade. We need to adapt our farming practices to prevent over-supplying inputs in low rainfall years. This must be done in a way which does not compromise potential yield if it turns out to be a wet season. We cannot change crop type once sown but can increase the proportion of cereals and fallow if there is no stored soil moisture at seeding. We can also reduce P rates in accordance with past applications and with potential yield AND we can delay N inputs until later on the season. Refer to numerous articles on these topics in this manual. occurring in our climate and rainfall patterns. It does show that, although not desirable, it is not unusual to have a run of dry years – it could be just chance or a normal periodic event. Other long periods of dry seasons occurred at the start of the 20th century (1897 to 1906), mid 1920s to early 1930s; and the longest dry spell between 1938 and 1950.

• Minnipa Agriculture Centre results showed significant yield advantage with earlier sowing in trial data even in a great season.
• Weeds can have a large effect on early sown crops, but most farmers try to have some paddocks set up to sow early.
• If early sowing is an option take advantage of it.

• The wheat yields were quite acceptable considering the time of year they were sown. The average yield of 3.2 t/ha is still economic, even if feed prices are used. 
• The four winter wheat varieties grown in the trial are not suited for a July sowing, as the risk of stem rust carrying over summer, to infect the following years crop, is too high. In addition, if sowing has to be delayed into July, then a shorter season variety with the potential to make milling quality should be the preferred option. Winter wheats should only be grown if they can be sown early to maximise their high yield potential. 
• If the yield loss between the June and the July sowing at the Hamilton site is analysed, then an average yield loss of 26 kg/hectare/day is obtained. In other words for every week you delay sowing you are losing 180 kg/ha of wheat yield. 

• JumpStart is phosphate inoculant containing naturally occurring soil fungi
• Trial showed no significant difference in JumpStart treatments
• Significant yield increases achieved with increasing phosphorus rates
• DGT test results suggest JumpStart increases plant available P residual for following crop

• Summer weed control is not a luxury item and should be considered an essential expense.
• The financial reward of timely summer weed control far outweighs the outlay and this was again proven in 2006.
• Expenditure on summer weed control can be minimised if weeds are sprayed early.

KI’s 7 golden rules for successful establishment

•  Good weed control is absolutely critical – it’s a waste of time seeding if you don’t get weed kill.
•  Apply broad spectrum insecticides pre-seeding.
• Seed in early Spring.
•  Seed at 2kg/ha.
•  Ensure good seed soil contact.
•  Allow the plants to become well established before grazing.
•  Continually monitor the paddock, after seeding for insects and pests and during the first graze to ensure stock are not pulling up runners.

• Kikuyu has the potential to become a valuable addition to pasture mixes on parts of KI
• Kikuyu may provide many economic as well as environmental benefits
• Early spring sowing plus weed and insect control is essential for successful establishment (and the odd rain dance won’t go astray either!)
• Kikuyu is less likely to become an environmental weed if the adjacent native vegetation is fenced and is in good condition.

• Weed control is essential for effective kikuyu establishment.
• Two sprays of round up is the ‘safest’ bet although you do lose some grazing value and may have difficulties with seeding at the optimum time if the paddock is too wet to spray early.
• Further work is required to quantify the benefits of application of TM 21 on kikuyu pastures on KI.

• Weed control is essential for effective kikuyu establishment.
• Two sprays of round up is the ‘safest’ bet although you do lose some grazing value and may have difficulties with seeding at the optimum time if the paddock is too wet to spray early.
• Further work is required to quantify the benefits of application of TM 21 on kikuyu pastures on KI.

Lambs grazed on forage brassica at Jil Jil from November 2011 to early January 2012 achieved adequate growth rates (230 g/head/day). The forage brassica provided green paddock feed for nearly two months during harvest, saving stubbles for later use and avoiding hand feeding.

Farmers planning to renovate pasture’s can face an almost bewildering choice of varieties to select from. Victorian perennial rye grass is one of the best known of the ryegrass varieties and is still used by many. However, given it was developed and released in the early 1900’s it’s been superseded by many new and improved varieties. To look at this another way, this would compare to you buying rams from a breeder that had not done any genetic improvement in his flock for 100 years. 

Farmers planning to renovate pasture’s can face an almost bewildering choice of varieties to select from. Victorian perennial rye grass is one of the best known of the ryegrass varieties and is still used by many. However, given it was developed and released in the early 1900’s it’s been superseded by many new and improved varieties. To look at this another way, this would compare to you buying rams from a breeder that had not done any genetic improvement in his flock for 100 years. 

• Apply nitrogen early (stem elongation) for yield and later (head emergence) for protein.
• Nitrogen decisions should be made as the season unfolds because a good finish can make all the difference.
• Given the total amount of nitrogen applied to the crop and the soft finish, all treatments met APW specification for protein (above 10.5%).
• There was no significant difference in yield or protein between the different urea, UAN and liquid urea.
• There was also no significant difference between the 25 kg N/ha and the 50 kg N/ha rates for yield, however protein was increased.
   

Key points to be taken from this trial are, ensure early sprays are applied when Wheat Leaf Rust is detected. All fungicide treatment with an early treatment resulted in a significant yield benefit. it is important to take into consideration the cost of any particular fungicide treatment and the potential yield response.

• These results showed that field pea was much better suited to the deep sand than lentil, albus lupin and chickpea.
• This is consistent with results of the previous study undertaken in 2005. 

• Lentil and field pea yields were similar at Hart in 2011 and averaged 2t/ha.
• Sowing date and site location significantly affected variety yield performance with early sowing favouring higher yields at the ‘poorer’ site.
• The late September rain was critical for the yield of later flowering varieties at the late sowing date and the western site but was of limited benefit to the early maturing PBA Blitz.
• PBA Jumbo was the highest yielding lentil variety when sown early and PBA Blitz and Nipper were generally the lowest yielding varieties in 2011 at Hart.

• Lentil varieties yielded similarly in varying soil types and at different times of sowing.
• New early maturing lentil varieties PBA Flash (3.6 t/ha) and PBA Blitz (3.57 t/ha) were highest yielding.
• Lentils were equal or higher yielding than PBA Gunyah field peas under favourable conditions in 2010.

The BCG have undertaken trials with lentils for two years, in both years the lentils have failed due to very poor conditions. The results of the two years of trial work show that lentils should be sown from early to mid May. at 50kg/ha. Row spacings are best as narrow as possible so that the lentils stand up better at harvest. Optimum sowing depth is 7 to 8 cm. It is always best to sown lentils into a relatively clean and flat paddock.

The BCG have undertaken trials with lentils for two years, in both years the lentils have failed due to very poor conditions. The results of the two years of trial work show that lentils should be sown from early to mid May. at 50kg/ha. Row spacings are best as narrow as possible so that the lentils stand up better at harvest. Optimum sowing depth is 7 to 8 cm. It is always best to sown lentils into a relatively clean and flat paddock.

• There was a strong crop-top timing response, but limited variation between varieties from crop-topping in 2012. This may be due to below average end-season rainfall, suppressing some yield potential of untreated plots, particularly in later maturing varieties.
• All varieties showed yield loss from crop-topping two weeks prior to the recommended timing. A link between plant maturity and reduced yield was observed at the Early crop topping timing, with earlier maturing varieties showing the least effect and later maturing varieties presenting the greatest effect. At the Recommended timing only two of the later maturing varieties showed any yield loss.

• Early sown lentils consistently out-yielding those sown later, as the heat wave event in early
  November compromised yield of late sown lentil crops by terminating seed fill prematurely.
• The 2009 data was inconclusive in determining whether foliar fungicides for BGM control
  can be delayed until after the canopy closure stage in situations where conditions are not
  conducive for disease development at canopy closure (ie less than 10oC at night and 18oC
  during the day).
• The rapid finish to the season favoured early maturing varieties PBAFlash and CIPAL610 at
  both sites, averaging 5-32% above site means across sowing dates.
• Canopy closure sprays with follow up sprays dependent upon disease observation were
  successful in reducing BGM in all varieties tested at Paskeville, even at the early sowing
  date.

• A lack of foliar disease pressure, due to dry seasonal conditions, prevented the assessment of differing fungicide regimes on varieties in 2006.
• Previous agronomic trials and observations from evaluation trials suggest Nipper can be sown earlier than Nugget and Northfield without the need for high fungicide inputs due to its improved disease resistance.
• Further work on optimum sowing dates and fungicide strategies for maximising yield and quality of the large seeded green lentil type Boomer is still required.

• The tolerance of Nipper and Boomer to commonly used herbicides in terms of grain yield was similar to Nugget.
• Herbicide treatments containing metribuzin applied PSPE, generally caused the greatest yield loss to all varieties.

• There was diversity in phenology between varieties.
• Early sowing extended the crop vegetative period, but increased exposure to frost damage during flowering.
• Dry conditions severely limited lentil grain yield in 2019, but favoured early maturing varieties, particularly with mid May sowing.
• High yielding lentil varieties were PBA AceA, PBA BoltA and PBA Hurricane XTA at Wagga Wagga, and PBA Hallmark XTA and PBA BoltA at Leeton. NipperA demonstrated broad adaptation at Wagga Wagga.

• All varieties behaved similarly for grain yield in response to changes in plant density.
• This result was also found in the 2005 and 2006 trials, and indicates that the current recommended rate of 120 plants per sq.m is adequate for optimising yields at standard sowing dates in the new varieties Boomer and Nipper.
• The effects of sowing time indicate that in some seasons to maximise yields when sowing late plant densities can be increased, however this may not always be economical and in some cases could increase risk of disease.
• Lower rates could also be used when sowing early but
  again this result could vary with seasonal conditions.

• Early sowing generally produced the highest yield for lentils in 2007.
• Lentils varieties generally all responded similarly to plant density, in that, at the May sowing date, lower densities produced higher yields, while at the July sowing date, higher densities produced highest yields.

• The take home message from the lentil production trial in a disease-free year is that lentils should to be sown prior to mid June, preferably in the late May to mid June period to achieve optimum yields.
• A difference of 1t/ha was achieved between sowing in late May compared to an early July sowing. However it must be remembered that with an early sowing if crops are reaching canopy closure in late winter/early spring then significant levels of disease could be expected under conditions conductive to disease.
• Fungicide applications made no improvements to yield regardless of fungicide type, application timing or the number of applications made.
• However, if the season had been wetter with a higher disease incidence, then crops may have benefited from one or more fungicide applications.

This trial indicated that rolling just prior to coleoptile emergence delivered a desirable paddock surface for harvest without impacting on yield. There have however been reported cases of shoot damage in crops when rolled at this stage.

• Plant establishment – Most varieties had establishment between 80 and 90 plants/m2.
• CIPAL415 and Northfield were significantly lower at 65 plants/m2.
• Grain yield – Yields were generally extremely low, so it is difficult too draw many conclusions from the data.

• Grain yields averaged approximately 25% higher in plots sown on 30 cm the row spacing system (standing stubble) compared with the 19.5 cm row spacing system.
• Varieties responded differently to changes in row spacing with yield improvements ranging from 15%-50%.

• A dry and late start to the season led to the first time of sowing at both sites being dry sown in early June.
• The opening rains at both sites arrived on the 11th June, which was the effective sowing date for the first time of sowing.
• This sowing date was more in line with a mid sowing time for the Sandilands area and a mid too late sowing date for the Melton area.

• Results from this experiment and previous research have proven that lentils can be successfully grown in southern NSW with sound agronomic planning and management.

• Across all varieties tested there was no significant difference between the 4 May and 20 May sowings, which validates the current sowing window recommendation from late April to mid May for the western region of southern NSW. Previous experiments have shown yield decline with a late May sowing.

• PBA Hurricane XTA, PBA Jumbo2 and PBA Bolt were the highest yielding commercial varieties, while PBA Ace was significantly lower yielding in this experiment, which is not consistent with previous research.

• There was a significant reduction in seed weight when sowing was delayed for all varieties except PBA Ace, which showed no significant effect.

• A favourable growing season in 2016 produced results that supported previous work showing the importance of sowing within the recommended sowing window.

• No significant yield difference was found when lentil was sown on 6 May and 17 May, when averaged across varieties.

• Delay in sowing from 6 May to 2 June resulted in a 34% yield reduction and from 17 May to 2 June a 26% yield reduction across varieties.

• PBA Hurricane XT, PBA Jumbo2 and PBA Ace were the highest yielding commercial varieties, when averaged across sowing times.

• The results from this experiment indicate the importance of sowing within the recommended sowing window to maximise the height from ground level to bottom pod to maximise the ease of harvest.

Lentils need to be sown prior to mid June, preferable late May to achieve optimum yields. Sowing rates equivalent to the current recommendations of 120 plants/m2 appear adequate for cultivars used in this trial.

The optimum time for sowing lentils, for the 1996 season, was in early to mid May.

• PBA Ace and PBA Jumbo2 performed very well across a range of agronomic characteristics compared with the other varieties in this experiment. 
• Sowing time was a critical management factor in the 2015 season.
• Sow lentils in early to late May at 120 plants per square meter in the eastern cropping region of southern NSW to avoid yield penalties. 

• Ascochyta blight- and botrytis grey mould-resistant red lentil variety, Nipper, available for higher rainfall areas.
• Green lentil, Boomer, available for farmers but must be harvested early to maximise yield and seed quality.
• Good lentil management is beneficial in most years, irrespective of rainfall.

• Growth of lentil varieties and breeding lines was poor and grain yields were very low due to extremely dry conditions and multiple frost events during the growing season. Several of the salt tolerant lines appeared to show better growth early in the season.
• PBA Hurricane XT matured relatively early compared to other recently released varieties under dry conditions.
• Consistent with previous seasons, the new breeding line CIPAL1504 had grain yield similar or higher than recently released varieties, highlighting its yield stability and potential for future release.  

This trial was sown to showcase the growers, the viability of growing lentils in the region and evaluate varietal performance in the local conditions at Dookie 2019.
Older varieties like PBA Jumbo and PBA Jumbo2 were the top yielding varieties in a region where lentils are not traditionally grown. Yields were very good (1.21-1.97 t/ha), considering the very dry finish at Dookie.

• PBA Hurricane XT lentils continue to show tolerance to all group B herbicides tested in this trial, presenting an opportunity for flexibility in crop rotations.
• PBA Hurricane XT lentils displayed small amounts of yellowing and stunting from some herbicides, most evident following ‘SU2’ applied at 4 node, however they recovered quickly. No grain yield reduction was observed in PBA Hurricane XT from any of the herbicides applied in this trial.
• PBA Jumbo 2 displayed a significant yield reduction from terbuthylazine incorporated by sowing (IBS) in comparison to simazine applied IBS. As would be expected, the application of ‘SU1’ post-sow preemerge (PSPE) and ‘Imi2’ at 4 node significantly reduced grain yield in comparison to all other treatments.
• Early in the growing season, both varieties showed slightly more damage from terbuthylazine than simazine both applied IBS.
• ‘Imi1’ and ‘SU2’ both displayed the worst physical herbicide damage but recovered over time. 

• Key Messages: SP1333 and PBA Hallmark XT showed little to no signs of herbicide damage at x0.25 gai/ha and 376 gai/ha. At higher herbicide rates SP1333 showed lower herbicide damage than PBA Hallmark XT, but grain yield results were unreliable due to shattering in SP1333.

• Establishment and Plant Growth: Application of ‘Gp C’ PSPE had little or no impact on emergence and early plant growth. Lentils had optimum establishment and growth as a result of adequate soil moisture at sowing and favourable conditions during the rest of the season. Growth, development and yield were not affected by the few frost events, which occurred in the spring.

• Herbicide Damage: Both varieties did not show symptoms of herbicide damage at lower rates (x0.25 and x0.5 gai/ha) irrespective of the time of application (Table 1). However, at higher rates (x1 and x2 gai/ha) the new variety SP1333 showed less damage than PBA Hallmark XT. At x2 gai/ha, PSPE damaged SP1333 more whereas application at 4 node stage was more detrimental for PBA Hallmark XT.

• Number of weeds: Better control of weeds were achieved when ‘Gp C’ was applied as PSPE or 4 node applications at rates above x0.5 gai/ha (Table 2). Almost full weed control was seen in the x1 gai/ha and above for both PSPE and 4 node treatments. Weed densities were not different between varieties.

• Biomass at flowering: At flowering varieties were not significantly different in biomass. In PBA Hallmark XT biomass improved when low rates (x0.25 and x0.5 gai/ha) were applied as PSPE spray but decreased at the highest ‘Gp C’ rate (x2 gai/ha) applied as PSPE or 4 node stage spray, compared to the plants which did not receive herbicides (Table 3). This indicates that application of ‘Gp C’ at lower rates as PSPE sprays in PBA Hallmark XT can effectively control weeds without the crop damage or biomass loss, as oppose to higher rates. However, rates or times of herbicide application did not cause any biomass change in SP1333.

The application of inoculant at sowing has proven to be of high importance in optimising pulse production. Providing adequate level of available phosphorus boosts pulse production. Application of calcium shortened mature lentil plants diminishing harvestability, as pods formed closer to the ground.

Delayed sowing resulted in 25% of grain yield loss in PBA Jumbo2 and 15% loss in PBA Hurricane compared to sowing early. TOS did not influence grain yield of other varieties. Grain yields were not affected by sowing density when sown early as the dry finish to the season resulted in biomass loss in denser plots. However, lower plant densities resulted in grain yield losses in delayed sowing.

Average yield of autumn sown lentils were 1.7 t/ha in 2019 with a range from 1.0 to 2.1 t/ha between cultivars. PBA Hallmark XT, PBA Bolt, Jumbo2 and CIPAL1701 had the highest yields of the eight varieties tested (Table 2).

Average yield of autumn sown lentils were 1.7 t/ha in 2019 with a range from 1.0 to 2.1 t/ha between cultivars. PBA Hallmark XT, PBA Bolt, Jumbo2 and CIPAL1701 had the highest yields of the eight varieties tested (Table 2).

•  Lentils are not traditionally grown in the Victorian HRZ. Growth vigour was good and suggested a promising fit for lentils in the region, but unfavourable weather during reproductive stages, and late rain in November that caused lodging reduced grain yields.
• Large numbers of pods were dropped before harvest, with more than twice the number of pods dropped in plots sown on May 17 compared to June 6.  
   

• Grain yields of varieties and breeding lines were very low due to dry seasonal conditions. Hence, results of these trials should be interpreted with caution.
• Several frosts during the flowering and podding phase significantly impacted grain yields, particularly the earlier sown treatments which were further advanced in the reproductive phase and unable to recover. As a result, the trends observed in 2018 are completely opposite to long term trial results in low rainfall environment for lentil, which generally indicate significant benefits from earlier sowing.
• The mid/late maturing breeding lines CIPAL1504 and CIPAL1522 have consistently performed well in the Mallee across multiple seasons, highlighting the yield potential of advanced lines coming through the breeding program.

When sowing was delayed until rains in May (Wet) overall grain yields in varieties decreased by 20 – 80% in lentil, 40 – 80% in chickpea and 30 – 60% in field pea compared to Early and Dry sowing in April.

• Grain yields of varieties and breeding lines were very low due to dry seasonal conditions and extreme temperature events (heat and frost) during the growing season. Hence, results of this trial should be interpreted with caution. Long-term data and additional information should be considered when making varietal or agronomic decisions.
• Several frosts during the flowering and podding phase significantly impacted grain yields, particularly the earlier sown treatments which were further advanced in the reproductive phase and unable to recover. As a result, the trends observed in 2018 are completely opposite to long term trial results for lentil, which generally indicate significant benefits from earlier sowing.
• The mid/late maturing lines CIPAL1504 and CIPAL1522 have consistently performed well across multiple seasons, highlighting the yield potential of advanced lines coming through the breeding program. 

Grain yields in the Mallee were very low (< 1 t/ha) but results clearly indicated the adaptability of PBA Bolt which was the highest yielding variety in 2019 at Ouyen. Sowing early achieved higher yields, but only marginally better than mid-May.
Good grain yields (>1.5 t/ha) were achieved in the Wimmera, with a mid-May being the optimum. A new breeding line, CIPAL 1504 had the highest yields overall and offers potential to maximise yields when sown early. PBA Jumbo2 again was very high yielding, equivalent to the new ‘imi’ tolerant variety PBA Hallmark XT.
In these trials, consistent with previous work there is no clear link between flowering and maturity time and grain yield, with an early line like HSI2001 performing well alongside a mid/late flowering line, CIPAL1504.

Seeding rate of lentils in the Mallee could be lowered from 120 to 80 plants/m2, particularly with new disease resistant varieties sown early. Lentils were profitable in the mallee, producing up to $653/ha at Kulwin and $433/ha at Curyo.

• PBA Ace and PBA Jumbo2 performed very well across a range of agronomic characters, compared to the other varieties tested in this experiment.
• Sowing time was a critical management factor in the 2015 season.
• Sow lentil early to late May in the eastern cropping region of southern NSW.
• Target establishment densities of 120 plants m2 in this environment.

• Newly released varieties, PBA Ace and PBA Bolt, had the highest grain yields at Curyo (southern Mallee, Vic.) in 2012.
• Yields exceeded 2.5t/ha for both varieties when sown early, despite the very dry season. All varieties had higher grain yields when sown early (May 4) compared with later dates (June 5 and June 22).
• Varietal differences were evident in the relative decline in grain yield as sowing dates were delayed.
• Differences in tolerance to a range of group B herbicides were observed in several breeding lines. Pulse Breeding Australia will use this information to define future breeding directions for herbicide tolerant varieties, following PBA Herald XT.

• Organic matter treatments showed greater early vigour, but this was not reflected in yield due to the dry season.

 

• The application of lime or dolomite increased soil pH significantly and increased exchangeable Ca and Mg, while the application of gypsum increased soil conductivity levels.
• The nodulation of lupins sown on the gypsum plots was impaired probably because of the high salt levels in the soil.
• Following a drier than average season, lupin yields were lowest where gypsum had been applied in the previous year but benefited from the application of lime or dolomite.

• No till treatments have been higher yielding and more profitable in continuous cropping rotations. Cultivation has increased yield and profit in 18 month fallow rotations.
• Two cereals followed by a break crop of either fieldpeas or canola no till has been the most profitable rotation. Interestingly 16 years continuous wheat has not been too far behind.
• Weed spectrum and numbers have changed dramatically within rotations and tillage methods. Interestingly no till treatments have hosted less weeds than cultivated treatments.
• One year of no pre emergent herbicide has taken the trial back 6 years and allowed large numbers of ryegrass to again become established and set seed.

• Five stubble management strategies were compared: fully retained, cut and baled, burnt and incorporated with Lemkin or offset discs. 
• Grain yield from the burnt plots was significantly higher compared with stubble retained (fully retained and cut and baled) and both incorporation treatments were significantly higher yielding than where stubble was fully retained. It is likely that this effect is a result of increased stubble from retained treatments leading to poorer plant establishment.
• Fully retained stubble resulted in significant soil improvements i.e. increased soil moisture (particularly early in the season), higher invertebrate and microbial populations and improved soil physical characteristics.
• Rain at the end of the season may have masked potential yield benefits from improved soil moisture with retained stubble treatments.   

The value of starter P for early crop vigour was clearly demonstrated in 2014 by the decreased growth of wheat plants when P fertiliser was omitted. This effect continued through the grain development stages and was very evident in the final grain yield differences. If P application over the previous four years averaged 12 kg/ha or less, there is a good value return from applying P.  Although the highest yield was seen at 24 kg P applied in 2014, looking at historical trends shows that continual application of P at greater than 12kg/ha can provide yield gains but little or no margin and should not be considered unless low P application history, confirmed by soil P tests associated with P binding capacity, has resulted in low soil P levels. Results indicate a P recommendation of greater than 6 kg/ha to be appropriate for soils and conditions in the vicinity of the trial site, pushing up to 10-12 kg/ha if the input cost is affordable.

• Field peas are responsive to the applicatio nof phosphorus.
• In the Mallee, peas sown on low phosphorus soils (<15ppm Colwell) should be sown with 13-15kg P/ha. In higher P soils, rates should be 10-13kg P/ha. 

Longer-season wheat with later flowering time produced higher yield than early flowering wheat. However, the high correlation between the time to anthesis and the time to terminal spikelet initiation makes it difficult to evaluate the relationship between yield and CPD independently. Increasing biomass from longer-season wheat is probably more promising trait than lengthening CPD to achieve higher yield in the high rainfall area.

• Autumn removal of lucerne significantly decreased subsequent winter crop yields compared to spring removal of lucerne.
• Crops sown after spring removal of lucerne yielded the same as the crops grown in a continuous crop rotation.
• The crop yield penalty from autumn removal only lasts for one year.
• Apart from Grazon, all other herbicide treatments gave unacceptable lucerne control.
• Cultivation in combination with other herbicides will increase lucerne control by  20 to 30%. 
   

• Emergence counts early in season showed that there was no significant difference between the emergences of lupins at the three lower sowing rates.
• About 85 plants/m2 compared with 120 plants/m2 for the highest sowing rate. Interestingly enough the yields later in the season did not follow this trend.
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• The yields of Mandalup and Balara were the same, however, Tanjil was a significantly lower yielding variety.
• Mandalup looks to be a good option for this environment with its high yield, metribuzin tolerance and early flowering.
• Mandalup did have a higher percentage of protein that Belara, however this was less than Tanjil.

• Mandalup set pods early compared to other than other varieties tested in this demonstration.
• Mandalup yielded significantly higher varieties. If it wasn't for a late rainfall event we would have expected a large difference in yield between Mandalup and the other varieties tested.

• Given a very long and favourable season and 517 mm of growing season rainfall at this site, an above average site mean yield of 4.04 t/ha was obtained in this experiment.
• Averaged across species, angustifolius were 19% and 10% higher yielding than albus at 4 May and 20 May sowing date respectively.
• PBA Jurien and Mandelup were the only varieties to show a significant yield reduction as sowing was delayed to 20 May.

• No significant yield difference was found when lupins were sown on 28 April, 17 May or 2 June, when averaged across varieties in 2016.
• PBA GunyidiA and PBA JurienA were the highest yielding commercial narrow-leafed varieties, when averaged across sowing times.
• Albus varieties yielded significantly higher from the 17 May sowing when compared with the earlier sowing date (28 April) and later sowing date (2 June).

The early May sowing gave the highest yield for the broadleaf Albus Lupins, whilst early May and early June gave highest yield for narrow leaf Angustifolius Lupins. No yield advantage from April sowing at Gunning Gap. 

All lupin varieties produced similar yields of around 1.6 t./ha. Grain yields 14 – 16% higher were obtained by harvesting early.

Grain yield: Desiccation treatments did not influence grain moisture content or grain yield.

• Lupin establishment was strongly affected by seed depth and by the herbicide application treatment.  In all treatments except metribuzin applied PSPE, plant density was higher at a sowing depth of 3 cm rather than 6 cm. The IBS application of metribuzin reduced plant density for both sowing depths, however the PSPE application only reduced density for the 3cm depth. In  comparison to the untreated plot.
• There was a significant herbicide treatment by sowing depth interaction on the visual herbicide damage score ( Figure ). The greatest damage was observed where lupins were sown at 6 cm and metribuzin was applied IBS.  However, with a damage score of 10-15, the symptoms were only slight with the effects reversable.  This was reflected in grain yield as overall there was no significant effect of the treatments, seeding depth or variety.  The mean grain yield for all treatments was 0.75 t/ha. 

Using a combine harvester to manage stubble at harvest was expensive and exposed crops to greater risk of weather damage.  Harvesting tall and inter-row sowing was the cheapest form of stubble management and also gave good establishment.  Burning is cheap and effective at removing stubble, and allowed excellent establishment and greater early vigor for competition with weeds, but may not suit all paddock types.

• Malting barley needs to be sown early to optimise yield and minimise the risk of protein and screenings being too high.
• Applying fertiliser nitrogen to paddocks with high soil available nitrogen at sowing will lead to high protein and high screenings.
• Narrow row spacings wnd higher sowing rates increases yield and also minimises the risk of producing barley with high protein and screenings.

• Another dry season has highlighted the increased resilience that early-maturing cereals express over mid-season-maturing varieties in these adverse years
• Season 2009 will see an increased opportunity for farmers to include new innovative wheat varieties into their farming systems
• Relying on one wheat variety is like ‘putting all of your eggs in the one basket’. New varieties with differing maturity dates and improved agronomics/disease resistance are now commercially available to help offset this potential threat
• Yitpi continues to be the Mallee benchmark, although as Table 1 indicates, a number of new release varieties have grain yields and agronomics that compare favourably with the Mallee icon.

• Yitpi - Watch out for stem and leaf rust and yellow leaf spot - otherwise an excellent wheat for the Mallee.
• Mitre - Smaller grain size than Yitpi, but higher yields - an excellent wheat for the Mallee.
• Camm - Possibly at risk because of a new race of stripe rust, a good wheat for the Mallee where CCN is controlled in other ways.
• Chara - An option to achieve a Prime Hard premium, if markets are available.
• H45 - An alternative very early maturity wheat to Silverstar with improved grain size, but lacking CCN resistance.

Later grazing may have benefits in severely frost prone areas, but in the event that there is no frost, yield will be compromised. Grazing has successfully delayed flowering date and for the early grazing it would appear that there is roughly a 1 day delay in flowering for 2 days grazing.

Later grazing may have benefits in severely frost prone areas, but in the event that there is no frost, yield will be compromised. Grazing has successfully delayed flowering date and for the early grazing it would appear that there is roughly a 1 day delay in flowering for 2 days grazing.

• Incorrect identification could be costly as with Take all and Crown rot require different management.
• Check the bases of plants for symptoms, don’t rely on whiteheads (which need not even be disease related).
• Even where whiteheads are not present, significant yield losses can occur.
• Know the risk of yield loss in your paddocks before sowing. For 2012 crops, this will mean sending summer/autumn soil samples to the Predicta B testing service for analysis.
• The most effective management tool for both diseases is host-free breaks.
• Where old cereal rows have medium to high inoculum levels, sowing between those old rows can reduce yield losses from these diseases, but only if the inter-row has low levels of inoculum.
• When Take-all inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a 12 month break from hosts. If susceptible cereals must be sown, keep the paddock(s) weed free and sow the atrisk paddock(s) last in the cereal cropping program.
• When crown rot inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a break from hosts (2-3 years may be needed). If cereals must be sown then barley is least likely to show yield loss, followed by oats and bread wheat. Do not apply excessive nitrogen early in the season.

• Trial work funded by GRDC via the Southern Pulse Agronomy Program.
• Early sowing of beans in 2017 at Bool Lagoon did not increase grain yields.
• Different PGR treatments and application timings did influence grain yield at Conmurra in 2017.
• Trial planning for 2018 is underway.

• Trial work funded by GRDC via the Southern Pulse Agronomy Program.
• Early sowing of beans in 2016 at Bool Lagoon did not increase grain yields.
• Agronomic treatments applied at Conmurra in 2016 did not alter plant canopy size or plant architecture.
• Trial planning for 2017 is underway.

• The highest yielding treatments were the early high nitrogen rate (2.80t/ha) or the high nitrogen rate (2.91t/ha).
• Treatments imposed to manipulate crop growth were unable to save more soil moisture for grain fill

• Wheat dry matter production and total crop nitrogen was significantly lower in wider row spacing treatments.
• For the all the crops grain yield was significantly lower in the wider row spacing treatments.
• Treatments imposed to manipulate crop growth were unable to save more soil moisture for grain fill.

• Sowing the shorter maturing varieties, Emu Rock and Corack in early May was less productive than sowing Cobra, Mace, Magenta and Wyalkatchem.
• In 2013, the varieties sown in late May were higher yielding than varieties sown in early May however, screenings of Magenta and Emu Rock were greater than 5%. This response will vary from season to season so the disadvantages and advantages of early sowing need to be clearly considered.
• Nitrogen application increased wheat yield by 4.8 kg/ha for each kilogram of nitrogen (averaged across variety and sowing time) in 2013. 

• Results from this study, clearly demonstrated that sowing timing is important. For example, delayed sowing (30 June vs 9 May) reduced the grain yield potential for EGA GregoryA by 1.75 t/ha or ~24%.
• Agronomic management factors that affected yield potential from the early sowing time (9 May) included response to nitrogen (N) input (~9% variation), with genotype and crown rot disease pressure both individually accounting for ~8% variations in grain yield.
• When the time of sowing was delayed to 30 June, agronomic factors had a larger impact/variation on grain yield potential. With both genotype (variety selection) and crown rot disease pressure responsible for a 13% variation/decline in grain yield.
• Delayed sowing also affected yield response to N with no increase in grain yield potential due to N input, whilst targeted plant population affected grain yield, with the low population treatment accounting for ~9%