Soil DTPA was 0.27 mg/kg soil.

Grain yield increase by 32 % for both granular and fluid applied Cu.  About 1.3 kg Cu /ha was required for maximum grain yield of 3.2 t/ha.

Foliar application reached 85% of the maximum yield when applied at flag leaf before flowering; earlier application at first node was effective but only reached about 75% of the maximum.  

At this site seed coating had a small effect on germination of seedlings and was insufficient Cu for wheat seedling to recover from Cu deficiency.

Flag leaf Cu concentrations were 1.3 mg Cu/kg and grain Cu concentration from nil Cu treatments were 1.3  mg/kg

Soil DTPA was 0.32 mg/kg soil.

Grain yield increased by 2 % for both granular and fluid applied Cu.  About 1.5 kg Cu /ha was required for maximum grain yield of 3.32 t/ha.

Foliar application reached 97% of the maximum grain yield when applied at flag leaf before flowering; earlier application at first node was effective but only reached about 95% of the maximum.  GY

At this site seed coating had no effect on germination of seedlings..

Flag leaf Cu concentrations were 1.5 mg Cu/kg and grain Cu concentration from nil Cu treatments were 1.4  mg/kg

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1952.

• Cu  applied in 1959 increased grain yield of wheat. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore equivalent to about 5 kg Cu sul/ha.

• THe response of wheat  to Cu in 1959 was not annticipated .

• As there was very large responses to Cu in 1959, doubts arose as to whether Cu was originally applied. However, clover grew well in 1952 suggestion Cu had been applied, along with the plain supper Zinc 

• Conclusion a second application of Cu is required to the soil type.

• Wheat, rye and triticale were grown in three Australian soils at low and high levels of trace elements.
•  All basal nutrients were supplied in copper and zinc added at 4 mg/pot.
• Addition of copper alone greatly increased pollen viability.
• Addition of zinc alone either decreased pollen viability or had no effect.
• The results confirm the tolerance of rye to extremes of soil pH and to both copper and zinc deficiency.
• In all environments adding zinc alone aggravated copper deficiency.
• Genotypic differences in copper zinc interaction showed up most strongly in soils of pH 7 and 9.

• Zinc applied as a 0.5% zinc sulphate spray completely corrected symptoms of zinc deficiency in field trials.
• Increasing the concentration of zinc sulphate (0.5, 1 and 1.5%) or applying twice did not affect plant response.
• To be fully effective sprays had to be applied two weeks after emergence.
• Soil applications of 125 kg/ha zinc sulphate were fully effective but not lesser rates.

• Ornithopus sativus (French serradella) was capable of yielding as much as Trifolium subterraneum (subterranean clover) with 30% less phosphorus (P).
• Ornithopus compressus (yellow serradella) required 30% less P than T. subterraneum to produce the maximum yield, however its maximum yield was often lower than that of T. subterraneum

• Grain yields were increased 20-30% by the soil or foliar application of zinc, provided that phosphorus was also supplied.
• Critical zinc concentrations determined in the glasshouse and field were the same, being 19-24 mg/kg throughout the life of the crop and 13-15 mg/kg zinc in grain.

• Crop establishment was not improved by on-row seeding or by increasing seeding rate in 2016.
• Higher seeding rate increased early dry matter but this effect declined during the growing season.
• In 2016 row placement or seeding rate did not affect grain yield or grain quality.
• Sowing on-row may be an advantage on non-wetting soils with low moisture at seeding.

Neither crop establishment, grain yield nor quality were changed by on-row seeding or by increased seeding rate in 2017, similar to results in 2016.

Crop establishment in the non-wetting soil was poor in 2017.

In 2015, with low moisture at seeding, improved crop establishment from on-row seeding in the non-wetting soil increased crop competition and lowered brome grass weed seed set.

• Deeper sowing at 3-4 cm achieved better early dry matter and increased grain yield in a later sowing.
• Frost damage may have lowered yield with early sowing, but inter-row placement at TOS1 had the highest yield.
• TOS 3 placement in row achieved better early plant growth and higher grain yield.
• Later sowing reduced brome grass numbers, and the size of the panicles, so it substantially lowered returns to the seed bank.

• Crop establishment increased with on row sowing. Stubble from the previous season helps soil moisture infiltrate into non-wetting sands and into a position closer to the seed.
• Initial germination of brome grass weeds was higher with inter row sowing.
• Late brome grass weed numbers was also greatest with inter row sowing. Sowing on row may also increase crop and weed competition as will a higher seeding rate.

Over 3 years of crop production (2009-2011) applying replacement phosphorus (P) rates have been the most economic.

• A replacement P strategy produced similar yields to 10 and 20 kg/ha P rates in 2010.
• The trial indicated an economic benefit in increasing P rates up to 20 kg/ha on a deep sandy loam in 2010.

• Legume crops consistently increased pre-sowing soil nitrogen in the year following the break.
• Two-year break phases that included a brown manure vetch phase have generally resulted in the highest pre sowing soil nitrogen levels in the subsequent wheat crops.
• One and two-year break phases reduce Rhizoctonia soil inoculum, however levels increase significantly following the first cereal crop.
• Two-year break treatments generally reduced brome grass populations in the cereal phase, however all rotations relied on Clearfield herbicides for brome grass control by the second wheat crop following the break.
• The benefits from extra soil water following some break phases in this trial have been variable and small.

When sub-soil water is present, growing high value canola and legume break crops can be profitable in the Mallee.

Where brome grass seed bank populations are high, break crop sequences of longer than two years are necessary to decrease numbers, and keep them down.

The application of CLF herbicide chemistry is effective in reducing brome grass populations, but herbicide resistance will develop quickly if they are used repeatedly in the same paddock.

• The choice of legume species and management were found to influence the amount of nitrogen fixed by both crop and pasture legumes byaffecting either legume reliance upon N2 fixation for growth or changes in dry matter accumulation.
• Medium to high soil mineral N concentrations at sowing appeared to suppress N2 fixation by field pea more than lupins or faba beans.
• Pulse legumes grown for grain generally result in lower net inputs of fixed N.
• Available soil N following either legume crops or pastures can represent an additional 40 to 90kg N/ha in the 1st year.
• The increased N uptake by the 1st wheat crop grown after legumes was equivalent to 27-40% of N in the previous year's legum residues.

• Wheat sown after break crops produced up to 1 t/ha more than wheat after wheat
• The greatest benefit of the break crop was produced at the earliest sowing
• Safflower produced the break crop effect but produced low wheat yields, small grain but high protein due to drying out the soil profile.

• Break crops can be just as profitable as wheat crops.
• Antas sub-clover (for hay production) as the break crop was the most profitable option.
• Beans were the most effective at fixing nitrogen, averaging 13 kgN/tDM produced.

• Break crops can be just as profitable as wheat crops
• Antas sub-clover (for hay production) as the break crop was the most profitable option
• Beans were the most effective at fixing nitrogen, averaging 13 kgN/tDM produced

• There was limited varietal response from crop-topping in 2011. This may be due to below  average rainfall during late October and early November, the rapid finish on a shallow soil and the relatively late sowing date, suppressing some yield potential of untreated plots.

• The disc and the early sown no-till tillage systems produced the highest grain yields, 1.41t/ha and 1.36t/ha respectively.
• The early sown no-till system had the lowest protein and the highest screenings.
• The disc tillage treatment had the least available soil nitrogen in autumn.

• All the legumes sown - peas, lupins, sub clover and faba beans - were equal in terms of their nitrogen-fixing capabilities, reflecting the importance of having well nodulated legumes.
• The average amount of N fixed by the legumes was calculated at approx. 86kg/ha.
• In year 2, this residual N gave rise to a approx. 1 t/ha canola yield advantage.
• In yera 3, no differences in residual nitrogen from legumes were measured.
• Linseed extracted more moisture, from a greater depth, than the faba beans in the same year and all subsequent crops - canola and oats.
• The linseed was able to dry the soil profile in a decile 10 year (812mm rainfall). This is a potential solution for farmers wanting to dry out their soil profile.
• Two years after growing linseed, soil moisture levels were even.

Effective control of summer weeds before cropping can increase both grain yield and quality. The key to increased yield potential lies in additional sub-soil moisture available to the crop during the subsequent growing season. Summer weeds also deplete mineralised N reserves. Provided there are no limitations preventing crop roots from accessing the subsoil, the additional soil moisture can be seen in higher grain yields and generally grain protein and test weight.

There are no significant differences in yields between the control and the CFF plots on a wodjil soil type.

• Have established at what level the bucket is full
• Have a better understanding of where it becomes empty
• Have increased our confidence in utilising these tools
• In-crop nitrogen sampling has been a vital tool in assessing the effectiveness of the modelling

Key findings:

• Nitrogen (N) decision making requires a good understanding of background soil and plant science, and soil test interpretation.
• Training for new agronomists needs to be a priority issue.
• Senior NSW agronomists identified crop yield expectation as guided by soil moisture at sowing (or at the time of N decision making) as the most important determinant of N fertiliser requirement.
• Further research is needed to increase the understanding of how management practices affect potentially large gaseous N losses. 
• Changing from legume pasture-crop sequences to continuous cropping in many central and southern areas of New South Wales is posing new questions for managing N supply. The absence of N-fixation by pasture legumes is seen as a substantial loss of N-buffering capacity.
• Despite most advisers choosing soil testing as a key approach for determining N fertiliser required, many of their clients had a lower confidence in soil testing, citing ‘high perceived variability in soil nitrate results in the lead up to sowing’.
• Conclusions and Recommendations Senior advisers highlighted the importance of quality training in N decision-making, understanding the background soil and plant science involved, and soil test interpretation for the next generation of agronomists, with training courses including representation from highly experienced local agronomists.
• The understanding of gaseous N losses requires further research, development and extension to the grains industry. Recent field research in the north was limited in scope and produced challenging outcomes that can potentially lead to large practice changes in when and how N fertiliser is applied. Further research and development work is warranted to answer more of the practical questions growers and advisers are asking in regards to losses associated with various alternative practices.

• The northern results on N loss pathways are less relevant to advisers in the central and southern regions where N application timing, soil type and climatic differences are generally quite different from the dominant medium-heavy clays of the north. New N loss research is recommended for the lighter textured soils in regards to the potential for N volatilization losses from surface N application of various products. Economic outcomes from the various strategies being practiced are also needed. Nitrogen loss research should focus less on expensive slow-release products and more on optimising results from urea, the cheapest N source.

• Research into better soil water measurement was seen as a priority area, especially given the importance all advisers place on knowing this when making expensive N-fertiliser decisions for a coming cropping season. Zonal management within paddocks is not possible with single site characterisations, so atypical areas of paddocks are over or under-fertilised.

• The very early application of N fertiliser ahead of a winter cropping season is well established, but what is not known is how well the subsoil N may be protected or at risk from denitrification in flooding events. Also, better knowledge on specific N use within the profile during the cropping season will help growers to know when late-applied N is likely to be inaccessible to crop use.

• Nitrogen mineralisation was highlighted by agronomists from all three regions as an area for greater understanding with regards to the differences caused by climatic conditions, especially rainfall. They also require better understanding of the N produced from both native organic matter and recent legume pasture residues.

• There are a number of good decision support tools available currently, with several advisers suggesting that combining the best points of each into one package, even one available as an app, would be highly useful, particularly one with good grower-friendly reports.

• Many farmers have low confidence in soil testing.  This may be related to a range of factors from poor sampling strategies, to poor sample handling, to poor service from laboratory analysts, to insufficient sample numbers or poor interpretation of the results. It is seen as an expensive option for many, with some advisers looking for quicker and cheaper means of estimating soil mineral N.

• Variety-specific N management packages were seen by some senior advisers as key areas for continued research funding, as results from some new varieties have been quite different in terms of N uptake and protein outcomes.

• Making nitrogen (N) management decisions requires an understanding of soil and plant science, and soil test interpretation.
• Training new agronomists is a priority.
• Senior NSW agronomists identified crop yield expectation as guided by soil moisture at sowing (or at the time of N decision making) as the most important determinant of N fertiliser requirement.
• Further research will increase the understanding of how management practices affect potentially large gaseous N losses.
• Changing from legume pasture-crop sequences to continuous cropping in many central and southern areas of New South Wales is posing new questions for managing N supply. Less frequent pasture legume phases with their N-fixation benefits to the soil is seen as a substantial loss of N-buffering capacity.
• Despite most advisers choosing soil testing as a key approach for determining N fertiliser required, many of their clients had a lower confidence in soil testing, citing ‘high perceived variability in soil nitrate results in the lead up to sowing’.

• Soil pH results after liming and tillage treatments were applied was found to be quite variable and more sampling needs to be done before pH results can be quoted. Soil loosening indicates that only the deep tillage techniques were likely to incorporate lime into the deeper 20-30 cm acidic layer.
• This trial highlights the importance of measuring subsoil pH levels and applying sufficient rates of lime to prevent and correct subsoil acidification. Where tillage treatments are used to incorporate lime it is important to understand to what depth lime will be incorporated and which subsoil layers need correction. It is intended to monitor this trial for the next few years to further assess the benefits of correcting subsoil acidification. Yield response to lime incorporation can increase over time as the untreated soil continues to acidify further and as lime has more opportunity to react and neutralize the acidity that is present.

• Removal of soil compaction and subsurface acidity via deep banding lime to 30cm resulted in 18% yield increase over the untreated control.
• Despite the gross margin of the deep banded lime treatment being $35/ha less than the control in 2005, the benefits of deep ripping and lime application will still be realised in future years.

• Removal of soil compaction via deep ripping to 30cm resulted in  44% yield increase which equated to a gross margin of $38/ha more than the untreated control
• Addition of lime did not significantly improve yield in 2006, however, it is possible that a response will be gained in future years as subsurface acidity is present in the soil profile.

• Removal of soil compaction via deep ripping to 30cm resulted in  44% yield increase which equated to a gross margin of $38/ha more than the untreated control
• Addition of lime did not significantly improve yield in 2006, however, it is possible that a response will be gained in future years as subsurface acidity is present in the soil profile.

• Removal of soil compaction via deep ripping to 30cm resulted in  44% yield increase which equated to a gross margin of $38/ha more than the untreated control
• Addition of lime did not significantly improve yield in 2006, however, it is possible that a response will be gained in future years as subsurface acidity is present in the soil profile.

This work has demonstrated that it is possible to incorporate lime into seams in the soil profiel which can increase the soil pH and decrease the levels of toxic aluminium.

• Yield increases from deep ripping ranged from 220 to 750 kg/ha.
• Deep ripping demonstrations provide a tool to assess possible yield gains across various soil types.
• Replicated trials are needed to validate the yield increases seen at this demonstration site.

• Deep ripping dry sand was more effective with two passes (or shallow leading tines); less cloddy.
• Yield benefits of 410 kg/ha (18%) from deep ripping were mainly due to better head fill. Better head fill was probably due to better cooling of the crop in hot weather due to better supply of moisture.
• Extra moisture seemed to be from rain which infiltrated deeper in the ripped soil to avoid more evaporative loss than the unripped soil.
• A controlled traffic system will better protect the investment in deep ripping and extend the benefits. Deep ripping costs will also be reduced when the permanent tramlines are left unripped; seeding can also be easier with better flotation on permanent tramlines.

 

• Deep ripping enabled the crop to access about an extra 40kg of soil N/ha.
• The crop was as responsive to Flexi-N after deep ripping.
• There was no yield penalty from delaying Flexi-N application until the end of tillering. Deep ripping and Flexi-N were very profitable at this site.  

Deep ripping provided a 446 kg/ha wheat yield increase in 2017.

The penetrometer measurements show that the nil treatment at both sites had a harder soil profile in the upper 20 cm at Hannafords (clay loam) and down to 35 cm at Jacobs. The reason the Nil treatment at the site of Hannafords shows lower resistance at depth is because this zone was waterlogged (water perched on the clay layer), showing that the ripping and spading have relieved some of the waterlogging. 

The penetrometer measurements show that the nil treatment at both sites had a harder soil profile in the upper 20 cm at Hannafords (clay loam) and down to 35 cm at Jacobs. The reason the Nil treatment at the site of Hannafords shows lower resistance at depth is because this zone was waterlogged (water perched on the clay layer), showing that the ripping and spading have relieved some of the waterlogging.

Sub-soil compaction, caused primarily by the unmanaged movement of heavy machinery, is having a negative effect on grain yield and quality across the Geraldton Port Zone (as well other port zones in WA).  Compaction limits plant root growth, reduces plant available water capacity (PAWC) and in turn limits yield potential.

The profitability of a crop is dependent on the crop maximising the use of rainfall received and the PAWC of the soil is critical to this. This applies to all rainfall zones. Climate change however, has influenced the number of dry periods occurring during the growing season, so it’s more important than ever for crop roots to be able to explore the soil profile to the fullest possible extent.

Growers report that some soils on their property continue to underperform despite their fertiliser and system management strategy matching their soil type. The introduction of deeper deep-rippers to the region (550 – 700mm) has shown encouraging results, prompting growers to question current strategies and investigate the rippers as options for soil improvement.

In 2016 four growers within a 100km of each other currently employing deeper ripping strategies were asked to compare the performance of ‘deeper’ deep ripping (550-700mm) to standard deep ripping (250 – 350mm) and no ripping.  A full soil, plant tissue and grain yield analysis was performed at each site to gather information on the base site parameters and breakdown of how each soil responded to the treatments.

There was an increasing response to deeper ripping associated with a decline in rainfall at the sites (about 100mm variance across sites). To achieve the best return on investment growers are recommended to identify the sub soil constraints in their paddock before choosing the right tillage machine to alleviate them.

• Ripping below the hard pan (greater than 500mm) in pale sands, yellow sands and yellow loams in wheat or canola increases yield.
• Soil moisture probes show ripping deeper (below 500mm) allows more plant roots to access moisture deeper in the profile for longer in the season. Water infiltration also increase with depth of ripping.
• Leaving a firm even seed bed after deeper ripping is important to reduce seeding establishment issues.
• A negative yield response to deeper ripping in lupins on yellow sand was measured at Binnu in 2016.
• Crop yield response to ripping does vary depending on seasonal conditions and crop type therefore the economics of ripping must be considered over multiple seasons and timing of ripping in the rotation.

• Deep ripping to 500-600mm in coarse textured sandy soils increased yield by 21-66% compared to 6-24% with ripping to 300mm in wheat and canola in 2016 and 2017 in the Geraldton port zone.
• There was only a small yield response to ripping the red loam in 2016 and no difference in 2017.
• Soil moisture measurements and visual observations of plant root growth indicated deeper ripping allowed the plant roots to access more water from deeper down the soil profile. This is particularly beneficial in sandy soils that have a low plant available water capacity(PAWC) per 10cm down the profile therefore roots need access deeper into the soil profile to gain the same amount of water as heavier textured soils that have a higher PAWC per 10cm.
• Economic analysis found the higher cost of deeper ripping gave a positive return on investment up to $5/ha for every dollar invested at 3 sandy sites but not on the red loam where the return on investment was negative with a return of $0.63/Ha for every dollar invested. On the sand at Ogilvie there was a yield penalty in lupins in 2016, resulting in a negative return on investment which could not be recouped in the following dry season of 2017.
• If ripping below 400mm, consideration must be given to crop selection in year one (lupins are higher risk); leaving an even seed bed post ripping to reduce bogging and plant establishment issues; and managing weeds as due to poor competition and better access to water and nutrients can increase the weed burden as these factors can have a negative impact on yield reducing the return on investment.

Soils in the Wharminda and Stokes area of Eyre Peninsula were mapped and areas of micronutrient deficiency established by applying micronutrients (copper, zinc, manganese, iron, boron and molybdenum) in 24 factorial field experiments.

Fertiliser applications were made at the 1-2 leaf , tillering and booting stages.

• Grain yields were increased by copper application at 11 of the 24 sites.
• Zinc application increased yield at one site, manganese at one, iron at two and molybdenum at two sites, no increased due to boron application were recorded.
• Copper deficiency occurred in deep siliceous sands, calcareous sands, solodized solonetz and solodic soils with light brown sand at Wharminda.
• Zinc and manganese deficiencies were mostly confined to soils with a high carbonate content near the surface.
• Copper in the grain was a better indicator of deficiency than copper in the soil.
• Grain yield responses to copper application were indicated by grain copper of <2.5 ppm.

June 13th sown Gairdner produced yields in the range of 4.86 – 5.69 t/ha following canola stubble. With high soil nitrogen reserves (203 kg/ha N, 0‐90cm) recorded at sowing, there was a small but significant response to applied nitrogen (0.21 t/ha at 50 kg/ha N & 0.23 t/ha at 100 kg/ha N). There was a significant advantage to nitrogen timed during stem elongation (GS31‐33) over nitrogen applied in the seedbed.

Late sown Mitre (July 4) produced yields in the range of 0.6 – 2.16 t/ha following Canola stubble. With soil nitrogen reserves of approximately 30kg/ha N (0-10cm) recorded pre sowing, applied nitrogen was detrimental in this trial, with 50 kg/ha N reducing yield by 0.09t/ha and 100kg/ha N reducing yield by 0.23 t/ha. These figures disguise more detrimental yield reductions with seedbed nitrogen applications and no effect from stem elongation timings applied at GS31-39.

Late sown Mitre (July 4) produced yields in the range of 0.6 – 2.16 t/ha following Canola stubble. With soil nitrogen reserves of approximately 30kg/ha N (0-10cm) recorded pre sowing, applied nitrogen was detrimental in this trial, with 50 kg/ha N reducing yield by 0.09t/ha and 100kg/ha N reducing yield by 0.23 t/ha. These figures disguise more detrimental yield reductions with seedbed nitrogen applications and no effect from stem elongation timings applied at GS31-39.

• The wild radish population was consistent and of high density (303 /m2) across the site. Spray coverage was affected due to the high weed density and with 65% of the wild radish 4 leaf or larger across the site at application shading was also an influence.
• This trial was applied immediately after rainfall so soil moisture was good but the weeds had just endured a fortnight of frosts with very dry conditions and were still highly stressed.
• Coverage issues and the seasonal conditions prior to application coupled with ongoing dry and stressed conditions following application have contributed to lower than expected wild radish control from all treatments in this trial.

 

The PA Concept Farm gave growers the opportunity to see first hand the difficulties and successes of implementing new and innovative cropping techniques involving PA (Precision Agriculture) and CTF (Controlled Traffic Farming). Although final yields were not of importance due to the nature of the site, various observations throughout the year demonstrated to visitors some of the things to watch for when adopting these tools and practices. The fact that yields were not altered indicate the importance of maintaining dedicated wheel marks all season, and the implications of adding machinery such as that used to bale hay. The site also demonstrated that without amelioration, soil improvement due to reduced compaction can take a number of years to manifest into greater yields. 

Weed burdens at the site highlighted the importance of ensuring control in wheel marks, whilst indicating that wider row‐spacing does not necessarily mean increased weeds. The difficulties of keeping seeding equipment tracking straight when precision sowing were also encountered, making for a good discussion with site visitors about the various techniques that can be used to overcome this problem.

Costs of guidance were compared for the site, with $3/ha for line marking using a contractor with autosteer, $190/ha for a contractor to set up a whole paddock with beds and between $20,000 and $50,000 to get one machine setup with Real Time Kinematic (RTK) autosteer including your own basestation.

A demonstration to showcase options for managing water repellent soils was established in 2017. Mace wheat was sown into sand over gravel (below 20cm) on 24 May following 209mm summer rain, with no rain in April and 14mm in May.

• One-way plough reduced subsoil compaction to 30cm depth and improved soil wettability, crop establishment and yield.
• Deep ripping reduced compaction to 30 cm depth, improved crop establishment and yield, but not soil wettability.
• Knife point sowing established and yielded better than the splitter boot when sowing on deep ripped and one-way ploughed plots.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6–0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6 – 0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6–0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6–0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6–0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Saltbush and bluebush appear best suited to the moderately to severely saline areas of the site.
• Lucerne has presisted well on the non-saline area adjacent to the saline area.
• Sub-tropical grasses didn't persist due to excessive levels of salininty and possible competition and allelopathic effects of iceplant.
• The sandy duplex soil type appears well suited to direct seeding, as there doesn't appear to be any difference in growth between saltbush seedlings and direct seeding.

• Zinc,manganese and copper are the three most important trace element deficiencies for crops in southern Australia.
• Diagnosis from soil testing or symptoms is often unreliable or too late to manage the problem well.  Plant testing is the most reliable, if not fool profft tool to diagnose trace element deficiencies
• Deficiencies can be overcome with cheap sulphate foliasr sprays but boosting soil reserves for copper and zince is a good investment.

• All crops go through stages of development known as critical growth periods (CGP) where stress can reduce yield potential more than at any other time.

• Shading can be used to induce defined periods of stress on a crop to identify CGP.

• The critical growth period for canola was identified as approximately 100–400 degree days (°C.days) after the start of flowering (defined as 50% plants with one open flower).

• There was minimal effect of pre- and post-flowering stress on grain yield.

Nitrifying archaea and bacteria live at different soil depths, with nitrifying bacteria inhabiting the surface soil and nitrifying archaeal populations inhabiting the sub-soil (10-90 cm). Nitrifying bacteria are the most numerous overall when compared to the nitrifying archaea, and their decline in abundance with soil depth matches the decline in soil nitrification rates. In these soils, nitrification rates are low, suggesting the amount of NH4+ is low, leaving little available for nitrification. Understanding the ecology of these microbes and their role in soil nitrification rates, may lead to improved management strategies to decrease N losses from the soil and improve N use efficiency. 

All cultivation treatments reduced crop establishment significantly below “Nil” cultivation. 

Poor rainfall in September and October 2015 meant that the trial yielded very poorly (~0.5 T/ha), with no significant differences between treatments.

Soil test results are not yet available.

The Long Bottom Boots functioned reasonably well at first, but tended to plug with soil from underneath after multiple passes and on finer textured soil to the south of the trial area.

We think that a design that was wider at the back (60 – 80 mm) and therefore more open would improve soil flow down the boot, and reduce the risk of plugging.

(i) Several options exist to ameliorate subsoil acidity with incorporated lime. The method chosen will depend on pH profile, yield potential, budget, area affected, soil type and occurrence of other constraints that may be impacted. (ii) Modified deep ripping techniques can incorporate more topsoil and surface applied lime while at the same time effectively removing subsoil compaction. (iii) Applying adequate lime to ameliorate the soil pH profile to depth is of utmost importance and the rate of lime applied should not be compromised to pay for incorporation, although lime applications can be split with some applied before and some a year or two after incorporation.

1997 has shown that although lentils can yield well under drought conditions, the timliness of rain and soil type are very important.

• Zinc deficiency caused production losses in cereals of up to 25% and in medic of up to 300% in biomass.
• Critical level for zinc deficiency in wheat was established as 18 mg/kg in YEBs at late tillering.
• Zinc deficiency in crops can be corrected with foliar sprays, zinc coated fertilisers or zinc applied to the soil and thoroughly incorporated by tillage. Fertilisers which are a mix of NP granules and zinc granules are poorly effective.
• Zinc applied to the soil will provide residual benefits for 3-10 years, the longer persistence in sandier mallee soils.
• 70% of cereal crops in the SA mallee were zinc deficient in the early 1990s.
• An application of 2 kg zinc/ha to the soil (as an incorporated soil spray or zinc coated fertiliser) will correct zinc deficiency in broadacre crops and pastures.

• Twenty replicated factorial experiments conducted 1970-1971.
• Copper, manganese, zinc, iron, boron and molybdenum applied as foliar sprays at various times.
• Vegetative growth was less affected by copper deficiency than grain yield.
• There was a response to copper at 14 of the 20 sites.
• Response to other trace elements were much less frequent.
• Copper deficiency occurred on a wide range of soils.
• Responses to zinc and manganese applications were confined to calcareous soils.
• Copper concentration in the tops was poorly correlated with yield but a critical concentration of 2.5 ppm was apparent from grain analysis.
• The relationship between grain copper and copper responsiveness was not influenced by soil type.

• Despite apparently adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil profile, a significant yield response was still recorded where sulphur was supplied along with nitrogen protected by a nitrification inhibitor - Entec Granam.
• Marginal S levels may have become deficient during the course of the trial due to leaching of sulfur.

• There were adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil profile which limited response to any applied fertiliser.
• There were significant yield increases from enhanced efficiency products such as Entec at sowing.

• There were good dry matter responses to starter fertilisers at either 16 or 32 kg/ha of P although only certain treatments gave a significant dry matter inrease when raising P rate from 16 to 32 kg/ha. The best dry matter response was from Gree Top which supplied all the nutrients lacking in the soil test report.
• Potassium seed burn was not apparent possibly due to the relatively wet conditions.
• Both DAP and Gree Top grew over 70 kg DM/ha/kg P at the lower rate of 80 kg/ha, which supplied 16 kg/ha of P.
• Only Green Top, Croplift and Superfect+Mo increased yields with increasing rate of application indicating they supplied the lacking nutrient required to make use of the extra P available.

• There were adequate levels of phosphorus in the soil profile, but we still saw a response to phosphorus fertiliser.
• There were some differences within different products at the 12 kg P rate - with sulfur enhances products delivering a better outcome.
• Other additive to phosphorus fertilisers delivered no additional benefits.

• Although soil measures of zinc availability indicated sufficiency, zinc deficiency was severe in the untreated plots.
• Yield responses to foliar zinc of up to 86% were observed in sensitive cultivars.
• Some cultivars were not responsive to applied zinc and did not show any symptoms of zinc deficiency.
• Appropriate early treatment with foliar sprays eliminates zinc deficiency.
• Where soils are shown to be zinc deficient soil applications may be warranted but interactions with phosphorus need to be understood.

• Zinc diffusion was assessed for three fertilizers in three soils of varying pH.
• The fertilizer (zincSO4-coated monoammonium phosphate, MAP; zincSO4-coated diammonium phosphate, DAP; or zincSO4 alone) was applied in the centre of a Petri dish filled with soil.
• The zinc diffusion zone was visualized at various incubation times (1, 7 and 18 days) by exposing a CaCO3-impregnated filter paper on the soil surface and colouring the zinc captured on the filter paper using dithizone.
• The extent of diffusion was also assessed through concentric sampling and chemical analysis of soil sections.
• The visualization results agreed with the chemical analyses and demonstrated the effects of soil properties and fertilizer formulation on zinc diffusion.
• Combining zinc with P fertilizer restricted its diffusion, particularly with DAP fertilizer or in high pH soils.
• Solubility considerations indicated that this was due to the formation of zinc phosphate minerals.

• Both the grazed disc and grazed tyne treatments yield the same.
• In contrast to one of the initial years where the tyne treatments saw greater Patterson’s Curse density, there have not been any further or continual patterns of weeds within the site.
• Disc seeder saw limitations in ungrazed stubble, when stubble lodged along with soft wet soil. Solutions will include reducing stubble harvest height, to lower risk of post-harvest lodging, however even spread across header width will be essential.
• Addition of “residue managers” to brush material aside from path of disc openers would reduce level of poor establishment and ensure discs continue to roll and cut.
• Poor establishment means that it is behind on tiller density and ultimately head density. This is the basis of building yield potential and water use efficiency. Focus on maximum and consistent establishment to efficiently use nutrient and moisture resources.
• Tyne seeder is more “forgiving” in troublesome conditions, as there are fewer variables to manage.
• To date, total yields are virtually level, signifying there is no silver bullet to seeding machine or stubble management.
• To manage the variables which pose risk to any such system will be the key to limit downfalls (as seen this year with the ungrazed disc) and maximise profitability. This is the silver bullet!

• The trial at Dalwallinu suffered from low soil temperature after sowing.
• Disease was not a larege problem at this trial as the level of inoculum would have been very low.
• Bird damage accounts for some of the large standard deviaitons in the Genesis 90.

• Phytophthora medicaginis (Pm) inoculum concentrations decline to low levels (within 6−12 months) of a diseased crop and the distribution becomes more uneven.
• Within 6−12 months, survival populations of Pm (oospores) can be below detectable levels based on both soil DNA and isolate baiting methods.
• These inoculum decline factors limit the ability of PreDicta B to identify paddocks that have a significant disease risk.
• The Pm test is useful for in-crop disease diagnosis when the pathogen is active and inoculum decline has not taken place.
   

• Axe and Gladius produced the highest gross income at Franklin Harbour.
• Correll and Yitpi produced the highest gross income at Mt Cooper.
• Pugsley and Yitpi produced the highest gross income at Elliston.
• Flagship and Capstan produced the highest gross income of barley at Mt Cooper.

Trojan wheat shows its class, outperforming all other varieties apart from Phantom and Wyalkatchem at Port Kenny. Fathom, LaTrobe and Compass barley pushed towards the 5 t/ha at Port Kenny in 2014.

Mace, Phantom and Wyalkatchem out-yielded all other varieties at Elliston.

Corack was the top performing wheat variety at Wharminda.

Corack, Mace, Emu Rock and Scout were the top four yielding varieties at Franklin Harbour.

Top five highest yielding wheat varieties at Port Kenny in 2013 were Scout, Cobra, Corack, Mace and Wyalkatchem. Compass, Fathom and Skipper barely varieties performed well at Port Kenny.

There were no differences in yield between varieties in this trial however Cobra, CL Justica and Espada performed the best at Franklin Harbour in the 2013 season.

Yitpi and Mace performed well in the Witera wheat trial. The highest yields were recorded in Hindmarsh, Fathom (WI4483) and Skipper in the Witera barley trial.

• Mace, Yitpi and Wyalkatchem were the top three performing wheat varieties at Port Kenny in 2015.
• The top barley varieties yielded nearly 3 t/ha in a well below average rainfall season at Port Kenny.

• Franklin Harbour had an outstanding trial average of 3.35 t/ha.

• Mace was a standout in a tough year at Elliston, yielding 0.93 t/ha.

The Wharminda trial average was 3.50 t/ha.

• Guardian and Mace top yielding varieties at Franklin Harbour.
• Espada and RAC 1671 top the yields at Mt Cooper.
• Hindmarsh barley stands out; yielding 4.76 t/ha at Mt Cooper.
• Estoc, Scout and Espada top yielding varieties at Elliston.

• Guardian and Mace top yielding varieties at Franklin Harbour.
• Espada and RAC 1671 top the yields at Mt Cooper.
• Hindmarsh barley stands out; yielding 4.76 t/ha at Mt Cooper.
• Estoc, Scout and Espada top yielding varieties at Elliston.

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for two years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

• Grinding the limesand does make it more effective (ie increases pH more rapidly) and increases pH at a greater
• soil depth compared with using the same rate unground.
• However, we can get the same result from simply applying higher rates of unground product. Ultimately it comes back to cost effectiveness.
• To make it worthwhile applying ground product (and overcoming some application difficulties, ie the stuff blowing away!) we will need to get grinding costs down to less than the cost of about 2t of lime or about $14/t.

• Grinding the limesand does make it more effective (i.e. increases pH more rapidly) and increases pH at a greater soil depth compared with using the same rate unground
• However, unground lime applied at a higher application rate can have just as much of an effect on soil pH as ground limesand applied at lower rates
• Ultimately it comes back to cost-effectiveness. To make it worthwhile applying ground product (and overcoming some application difficulties i.e. the stuff blowing away!) we will need to get grinding costs down to less than the cost of about 2 t of lime.

Glyphosat, Trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus glyphosate metabolite AMPA are frequently detected at agronomically significant levels at the start of the winter cropping season.

The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and sufficient time is given for them to dissipate before re application.

Further research is needed to define critical thresholds for glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican and AMPA and the potential impacxts to soil function and crop production.

Growers should continue to be encouraged to employ land management practises that increase SOC in Western Australia’s cropping soils. Increasing soil C benefits crop production, and has the potential to decrease N and other fertiliser needs. Although increasing SOC increased soil N2O emissions (and inhibited CH4 uptake) in the present study, these losses were relatively low.

The greatest risk of N2O emissions from a sandy soil in the Western Australian grain belt occurred in response to summer-autumn rainfall events, and more so with increasing SOC. This observation is consistent with previous observations for semi-arid soils where a large proportion of annual N2O emissions occurred between crop growing seasons, when the soil was fallow, and in response to soil wetting following summer and autumn rainfall. Approaches to decreasing N2O emissions following summer rainfall events is limited to decreasing N2O emissions from nitrification (e.g., liming, nitrification), and increasing soil N immobilisation and plant N update during summer and autumn.

Nitrogen supply (via mineralisation) prior to seeding varied depending on soil type and summer rainfall, and needs to be included when determining annual N fertiliser requirements. Optimising N fertiliser input will increase farm profitability and decrease the risk of N2O emissions arising from under-utilised N fertiliser.

The proportion of N fertiliser applied that was lost as N2O from a sandy soil in the Western Australian grain belt ranged from 0.08 to 0.12%. This finding, plus past research in the Western Australian grain belt, supports further lowering current Australia’s emission factor (0.3%) for calculating N2O emissions from the application of N fertiliser to non-irrigated, cropped soils in Australia’s semi-arid regions.

• Crop production is often a source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions including nitrous oxide (N2O).
• Increasing organic carbon (C) in the surface soil increased N2O emissions from a cropped soil in the Western Australian grainbelt, however, losses were low by international standards.
• Greatest N2O emissions occurred in response to summer-autumn rainfall events.

 

• Canola yield was increased and oil % marginally decreased with increasing N rate applied.
• The highest yield (4.2 t/ha) was achieved at the highest N rate (160 kgN/ha).
• With adequate starting soil N (67 kgN/ha) and good spring rain, N application timing made little difference.
• 30% N fertiliser recovery in grain remains a good ‘rule of thumb’ for canola N budgeting.
• Easy N® application shows promise for topping up N at early flower.
   

• Changing the pre-plant N fertiliser from the non-irrigated side of the plant bed to the irrigated side of the plant bed did not affect soil mineral nitrogen (N), plant growth or cotton lint yield.
• The pattern of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions after the first irrigation event differed according to N fertiliser placement treatment, but the total amount of N2O released was the same.
• Pre-plant N fertiliser placement did affect N2O emitted after the second irrigation (with water-run N), with more lost from the irrigated, non-fertilised side of the hill.
• The cumulative N2O losses summed over all the measurement events showed no treatment differences resulting from pre-plant N fertiliser location, indicating that there is no agronomic or environmental benefit to changing N fertiliser location.
   

• Changing the pre-plant nitrogen (N) fertiliser location from beside the non-irrigated furrow to beside the irrigated furrow increased nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, primarily from the fertiliser band location.
• Irrigating every single furrow instead of every second furrow did not significantly change N2O emissions.
• Altering irrigation furrows in relation to pre-plant N fertiliser did not significantly affect mineral N in the surface soil, nor did it affect any measure of crop production.
• These results do not support changing from the current irrigation and N fertiliser placement system in use.
   

• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions at the Gunnedah site were approximately three times higher than at the Emerald site, probably because of the heavier clay soil at Gunnedah.
• High and highly variable N2O emissions occurred at both sites during the week following the first irrigation event after the pre-planting nitrogen (N) application. There was no significant effect from the amount of N applied at pre-planting on these first emissions, nor overall at Gunnedah. At Emerald, overall N2O losses were greater from the split N treatment.
• N2O emissions were low–negligible following the subsequent 4–5 irrigation events, except where N was water-run, which caused small and temporary increases in N2O.
• The greatest N2O emission came from the soil above the pre-plant N fertiliser bands. More was emitted from the non-irrigated side of the plant bed, even when both sides of the bed had been fertilised (Emerald).
• Cotton lint yield was not affected by N timing treatment, however, plant biomass was smaller and more N-concentrated from the split N treatment at Gunnedah.
• The 2015–16 weather conditions did not favour either N-timing treatment agronomically or environmentally, but different rainfall patterns in other years may be more influential.
   

• Simulated dry sowing was not shown to have any detrimental effect on Zn fertiliser use efficiency.

• Commercial granular and liquid monoammonium phosphate fertilizers enriched with zinc were incubated under dry and wet conditions to test the effects of dry sowing on fertilizer diffusion, lability, and subsequent availability to wheat (Tritium aestivum L. ‘Axe’) plants in the growth chamber using isotopic techniques.
• Fertilizer incubated in dry soil tended to have a much greater lability than in wet soil, but diffusion was limited.
• The restricted diffusion during the incubation did not negatively impact nutrient availability to plants subsequently grown in the growth chamber, however, and simulated dry sowing was not shown to have a detrimental effect on fertilizer efficiency.