Forage sorghum and millets achieved the highest yields during the summer forage trial. Lab lab was the most promising forage legume although DM yields were low. Other legumes along with t eh brassicas and winter cereals either failed to emerge or achieved only sparse plant numbers.

• The presence of stubble did not increase stored soil moisture, regardless of the size and number of irrigation events.
• In 2010 additional soil moisture at sowing did not generally increase final grain yield.
• Additional soil moisture can increase crop demand and response to nitrogen.

• Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds.  This treatment seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions. 
• Summer sowing offers early winter grazing in a mixed enterprise farm. The technique has the ability to lift the legume component in a pasture which has degraded through a range of factors such as drought and/or intensive cropping. On a farm without grazing animals, summer sowing can be used to produce a green fallow with a high legume content that can be brown manured to provide  high nitrogen residues  and maximise the organic matter for the benefit of subsequent crops.
• Summer sowing reduces establishment cost by firstly, minimising seed processing particularly in the case of serradella where seed extraction is difficult and expensive and secondly, sowing does not require a pre-sowing application of herbicide.
• The requirement to sow hard-seeded cultivars in summer or early autumn does lose some of the flexibility to tactically respond to seasonal conditions and this needs to be balanced against the clear productivity advantages demonstrated.

• Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds.  This treatment seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions. 
• Summer sowing offers early winter grazing in a mixed enterprise farm. The technique has the ability to lift the legume component in a pasture which has degraded through a range of factors such as drought and/or intensive cropping. On a farm without grazing animals, summer sowing can be used to produce a green fallow with a high legume content that can be brown manured to provide  high nitrogen residues  and maximise the organic matter for the benefit of subsequent crops.
• Summer sowing reduces establishment cost by firstly, minimising seed processing particularly in the case of serradella where seed extraction is difficult and expensive and secondly, sowing does not require a pre-sowing application of herbicide.
• The requirement to sow hard-seeded cultivars in summer or early autumn does lose some of the flexibility to tactically respond to seasonal conditions and this needs to be balanced against the clear productivity advantages demonstrated.

• Summer sowing into perennial grasses is showing some promise, but the results are inconsistent.  We need to develop guidelines for the required soil conditions (including soil fertility) and there is a need to reduce weed competition by controlling the seed-set of annual pasture weeds in the preceding year.
• Results from these trials plus a range of other summer sowing sites demonstrate that serradella pods need to be drilled for successful establishment. Broadcasting pod is not a reliable alternative.
• The experimental line of yellow serradella (72.1A) was slow to establish in the first year at Badgingarra but has has really gone ahead in the second year.  This yellow serradella is unique in having a very different hard seed breakdown pattern compared with the commercial yellow serradella varieties (i.e. Yelbini, Charano, Santorini) and is suitable for ‘summer sowing’.  It is earlier flowering (80 to 90 days compared to 105 to 115 for Margurita) and yellow serradella is hardier than French serradella.
• Summer sowing using pod avoids the need for de-hulling, so seed is cheaper, but higher sowing rates are required.  Consequently the concept relies to a large extent on farmers being able to source or to produce their own hard-seeded serradella pod at low cost

• The results for summer sowing into an established perennial grass pasture were encouraging in a season with minimal spring rainfall. The results were negatively impacted by the low rainfall in spring. Drilling pod was more successful than broadcasting pod and then using animals to trample it into the soil.
• This was the first summer sowing trial into perennial grasses in WA so it is too early to develop recommendations, but it appears that you need to use 20 to 40 kg pod/ha to achieve a good seedbank. The mid-March sowing time is at the end of the ‘sowing window’ for summer sowing. Sowing in early February is desirable to maximize the time for hardseed breakdown.
• With summer sowing using pod rather than seed there is no need for de-hulling, so there is a cost saving per kilogram, but higher sowing rates are required as the seedlings need to compete with annual grasses, broadleaf weeds as well as the perennial grasses. The summer sowing method requires relatively high sowing rates and the concept relies to a large extent on farmers producing hard-seeded serradella pod on-farm at a low cost.After these promising results in 2010, similar trials will be undertaken in 2011 with local producers.

• The results for summer sowing into an established perennial grass pasture were encouraging in a season with minimal spring rainfall.  The results were negatively impacted by the low rainfall in spring.
• Drilling pod was more successful than broadcasting pod and then using animals to trample it into the soil.  This was the first summer sowing trial into perennial grasses in WA so it is too early to develop recommendations, but it appears that you need to use 20 to 40 kg pod/ha to achieve a good seedbank.  The mid-March sowing time is at the end of the ‘sowing window’ for summer sowing.  Sowing in early February is desirable to maximize the time for hardseed breakdown.
• With summer sowing using pod rather than seed there is no need for de-hulling, so there is a cost saving per kilogram, but higher sowing rates are required as the seedlings need to compete with annual grasses, broadleaf weeds as well as the perennial grasses.  The summer sowing method requires relatively high sowing rates and the concept relies to a large extent on farmers producing hard-seeded serradella pod on-farm at a low cost.
• After these promising results in 2010, similar trials will be undertaken in 2011 with local producers.

Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require
the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds. This treatment
seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth
rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions.

For further comments please see the attached trial report.

Results from a demonstration in December of 2012 suggest weed control had an impact on stored soil moisture and consequent yield in 2013 across a range of soil types at seven locations across the Eastern Wheatbelt. Another factor that could have been quantified in this work, was the effect of weed control on nitrogen status (and consequent effect of N on yield). Opening values were collected at the beginning of the trial but no closing N values were measured. Removing summer weeds has an impact on the nitrogen levels in the soil, and this will be further quantified with more field work in 2014.

• The 2013 Tamworth and 2014 Trangie environments were not conducive to high levels of seed markings, with all varieties having <5% tiger stripe/blotches.
• The later sown chickpeas had a lower incidence of seed markings in two of the three environments.
• The 2015 Tamworth experiment was conducive to seed markings for the first sowing date (SD1). In this case, the most susceptible commercial varieties were PBA PistolA and PBA BoundaryA, with 9.7% and 6.7% of individual seeds having tiger stripe/blotches respectively.
• All five kabuli varieties did not display any seed markings in any of the three environments.
• All desi varieties showed at least low levels of tiger stripe/blotch type markings in one or more of the three environments and two sowing dates

Conclusions

Time of sowing and variety influence the amount of seeds showing the tiger stripe/blotching type markings in chickpea. Kabuli chickpeas do not suffer from this defect. Desi chickpeas sown in mid-June at Tamworth and Trangie had a lower incidence of this type of seed marking. Research is ongoing to identify both the genetic basis and the environmental triggers of tiger stripe/blotch type markings in desi chickpeas to minimise any potential risk to the Australian chickpea industry.

• Test your soil- soil testing individual paddocks for nutrient status and plant available water at the start of the season allows you to determine the paddocks yield potential and requirements. Knowing this information at sowing can assist in making decisions throughout the season.
• Yield Prophet- the crop simulation model is a great tool for assessing crop risk and predicting potential yields.

• Yield Prophet- the crop simulation model- is a great tool for assessing crop risk and predicting potential yields.
• For renovating overgrazed perennial pasture paddocks, the sowing of cereals is a low risk strategy.
• Pasture establishment is extremely difficult in the Mallee in years with limited spring rainfall.
• Cereal biomass production may be greater by an order of 10 times than either perennial or leguminous pastures in the first year of establishment.
• Best pasture options for a June sowing in terms of biomass in the first year of establishment are either forage brassica or Italian Ryegrass

• N Calculator recommendation was accurate for 9 weeks after sowing (WAS) application with additional nitrogen not increasing yeild. The recommendation was slightly below optimumfor 7 WAS.
• Achieving close to the target 10.5% protein indicates that recommended N rates were utilised to optimise growth and yeild and application of N was not deficient or excessive.
• This provides confidence to incorporate the use of N Gauges and the N-calculator to assist in making N application decisions to wheat crops during the season based on the growth status of the crop.
• Summit will continue further testing of the N Calculator under differedt seasonal consitions in the noerthern Wheatbelt and the effect if timining of NVDI assessment and N-Calculator recommendations on yield response to in season N applications.  

• Nuseed Diamond achieved 5 t/ha grain yield from early sowing (watered for germination on 12 April).
• The high yield of Nuseed Diamond was due to its high biomass accumulation and high harvest index. ATR BonitoA was the lowest yielding variety, largely because it accumulated less biomass than hybrid non-TT varieties.
• Split nitrogen application resulted in higher grain yield than all nitrogen applied at sowing or all nitrogen
delayed to the 8-leaf stage.

• Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) was the highest yielding variety, averaging over 4 t/ha, with Nuseed Diamond and Pioneer® 45Y25 (RR) also achieving high yields.
• Sowing on 5 April resulted in higher grain yield, reduced lodging and lower oil content compared with sowing on 26 April.
• A plant population of 35–56 plants/m2 resulted in higher grain yields than populations of 18 plants/m2 or 68 plants/m2.
• Applying 200 kg N/ha resulted in higher grain yields than 150 kg N/ha when the soil available nitrogen (N) at sowing was 64 kg/ha. Nitrogen rates above 200 kg N/ha resulted in no extra yield.
• Increasing N application rates above 200 kg N/ha reduced oil concentration.
• Crop lodging increased with plant populations above 35 plants/m2 and N rates above 150 kg N/ha.

• Correct varietal selection and optimal agronomic management can result in irrigated wheat yields of over 10 t/ha.
• LongReach CobraA, LongReach TrojanA and BeckomA were the highest yielding varieties.
• Delaying nitrogen fertiliser application by applying the greatest amount at booting was shown to improve grain protein concentration and reduce lodging compared with applying more nitrogen at sowing.
• A plant population of 120 plants/m2 was shown to yield more than higher plant populations whilst also minimising lodging.

(i) In many cases, retained hybrid sowing seed resulted in more blackleg and lower grain yields than when commercial hybrid sowing seed was used. (ii) Oil content was lower in crops grown from retained sowing seed. (iii) Benefits of commercial hybrid sowing seed outweighed the cost of buying that seed.

The grain yield from raised bed plots was 60% higher than from unbedded plots. Given the very wet winter and the waterlogging intolerance of albus lupins, this result is not surprising. In the two previous relatively dry years wheat and poppy crops in the same trial area have shown no benefit from the raised beds (on a per hectare basis).

• There was a wide range in crop maturities with up to 50 days difference in date of first flower
• Several lines had flowering dates which fell between the commercially available spring and winter types
• Yields of up to 7 t/ha were achieved at Inverleigh and 6.6 t/ha at Hamilton
• Many of the lines not commercially available to growers outperformed the commercial varieties
• Lines with mid-season maturities may be suited to a wide range of locations in the HRZ 

• 67% of divalent manganese incubated on calcareous sands form Warooka was immobilised within 167 hours by chemical and biological processes.
• In field experiments over seven years manganese up to 16 kg/ha drilled with the barley crop did not prevent manganese deficiency in crops.
• However, manganese applicaiotn increased crop growth, delayed deficiency symptoms and increased grian yield by an average of 61%.
• The optimum applicaiotn at seeding was 6 kg/ha manganese (25 kg/ha nanganese sulphate).
• Three foliar sprays of manganese did not completely correct manganese deficiency.
•  The best results were obtained by applying 6 kg manganese at sowing followed by three foliar sprays.

• A replicated trial was conducted to compare grain yield of early sown Revenue wheat (cut and uncut for fodder) with that sown at a more traditional time, May.
• Both cutting and later sowing significantly reduced grain yield compared with the early sown uncut treatment.
• The most significant effect was the ability of the early sown plots to better tolerate the very wet conditions. With a root system actively depleting moisture from the soil profile in late autumn the early sown treatments entered winter with a depleted soil moisture bank whereas May sown plots struggled over winter due to additional water logging.
• March sown plots that were cut did not recover as well as in drier seasons. It is likely that the prolonged water-loggin created an addional stress on top of cutting to the detriment of crop recovery and grain yield.

• Despite visual differences there is no major impact on soil structure, water holding capacity or water infiltration from grazing in summer or winter when soils are water logged.
• Grazing in the previous winter or summer does not affect the following crop establishment or grain yield.
• Any yield losses after winter grazing are the result of moisture stress in the period immediately after grazing through to flowering.
• Annual ryegrass and wild raddish populations did not increase because of grazing, although the sites only had low levels of infestation to being with. However, farmer observations do not support this and further work is needed.

• Despite visual difference there is no major impact on soil structure, water holding capacity or water infiltration from grazing in summer or in winter when soils are waterlogged.
• Grazing in the previous winter or summer does not affect the following crop establishment or grain yield.
• Any yield losses after winter grazing are the result of moisture stress in the period immediately after grazing through to flowering.
• Annual ryegrass and wild radish populations did not increase because of grazing, altough the sites only had low levels of infestation to begin with. However, farmer observations do not support this and further work is required.

• Despite visual differences there is no major impact on soil structure, water holding capacity or water infiltration from grazing in summer or winter when soils are waterlogged.
• Grazing in the previous winter or summer does not affect the following crop establishment or grain yield.
• Any yield losses after winter grazing are the result of moisture stress in the period immediately after grazing through to flowering.
• Annual ryegrass and wild raddish populations did not increase because of grazing, although the sites only had low levels of infestation to begin with. However farmer observations do not support this and further work is required.

Grazing crops early and/or lightly will generally not affect grain yields.

Plant recovery is supported by having more green material remaining after grazing; the more the merrier!

Early sown winter wheat can produce more biomass earlier in the season than spring wheat varieties.

Rhizobium inoculation improved faba bean yields by 9-30% above uninoculated plants. Higher rates of rhizobium inoculum show a trend to further increase yield though this was not significant. Rhizobium inoculation should be considered as cheap insurance against conditions not favourable to nitrogen supply, particularly during winter.

• The disc machine had much less variation in seed placement than the tyne.
• The depth of incorporation with the single disc seeder increased slightly with speed, although speed of sowing did not significantly improve weed control.
• Crop growth was not affected by the speed of sowing with discs as hypothesized but there was a significant difference between the tyne and disc seeded treatments. The limited vigour of the wheat seedling sown by the disc seeder is probably the reason for generally lower yields than tyne sown plots. It is not clear whether reduced vigour was due to weed competition or herbicide toxicity as these factors weren’t tested separately in this trial. 
• For further detials, see attached trial report.

• Sowing date and varietal phenology both affected the exposure of canola to rain days and potential disease infection.
• Early sowing increased the level of pod blackleg infection.
• Early sowing increased sclerotinia infetion in the early flowering variety Hyola 575CL but not in the slower variety Pioneer 45Y88 (CL). 
• Grain yield was higher from the later sowing date (22 April) than the early sowing date (7 April).
• Grain yild was closely correlated to total biomass accumulation, which was greater from the 22 April sowing time than 7 April sowing time.

• Early sown (9 April) Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) yielded similarly to later sown (20 April) Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) and Hyola 575CL.
• The irrigation treatment that stored 20mm plant available water did not increase grain yield or oil concentration.
• The maturity biomass was higher from the later sowing date, but the harvest index was slightly higher from the early sowing date.

 

The effect of planting date on grain protein is less clear when viewed over the full planting date range. Past mid June however, the figures would suggest that delaying sowing date in fact increases grain protein.

For a full list of take home messages please see the attached trial report.

• Variety phenology and sowing date need to match to avoid plants flowering and podding during periods of severe frost. The highest yield in 2017 came from the 6 April sowing of the long season varieties Archer and ATR WahooA that flowered in early August.

• ATR Stingray and Nuseed® Diamond flowered earlier than the optimum start of flowering (OSF) date (28 July) from both the 6 April and 20 April sowing dates with significant frost damage incurred at both sowing dates.

• Canola varieties have the ability to recover from severe frost damage where soil water is not limited.

• Plant population is poorly correlated with sowing rate. Farmers should focus more on plant populations rather than just sowing rate.
• High plant populations increased yield without affecting grain quality in these two trials.
• Dryland wheat farmers in the Parkes and Forbes areas should target a plant population of 100-120 plants / m2.
• Sowing rates should vary depending on seed size, germination and sowing conditions to achieve the target plant density.

• Harvest results (grain yield and quality) are more closely related to plant density than sowing rates.
• Plant density can vary by over 50% for any given sowing rate. Correct sowing rate calculations that take into account seed size, germination % and expected emergence losses are needed to achieve target densities.
• A target density of 120 plants/m2 is suggested as a good compromise for achieving good yield and quality in the local area.

• The effects of sowing time and variety on yield and oil concentration of canola (Brassica napus) were investigated at Condobolin in 2002 and 2003.
• Eight canola varieties and two Indian mustard varieties differing in maturity were established at four sowing times from early April to mid June.
• Early sowing increased yield and oil concentration.
• Yield and oil concentration declined with each delay in sowing time in both years.
• Variety maturity type is not as important as early sowing.

• Sowing canola early (6 April) on 200 mm applied water reduced the time to the start of flowering by up to two weeks, compared with a later sowing (7 May).
• Significant yield increases were recorded across all varieties (for both sowing dates) where 200 mm water was applied pre-sowing, compared with 70 mm and 0 mm.
• The highest yield resulted from sowing a mid season hybrid (Pioneer® 45Y91 (CL)) early on 200 mm applied water.
• Sowing canola early on 200 mm applied water yielded around 900 kg/ha more than sowing later with the same amount of applied water, averaged across all varieties.

• Each stubble incorporation prior to sowing lead to better weed control in the crop as we were able to create an early germination of ryegrass. 
• There was considerable difference in soil moisture and its distribution through the profile at establishement.
• Straw length at harvest was the biggest drawback in incorporating and establishment.
• Previous trial cropping areas, on other parts of the padock, still showed up the biggest difference in the crop's establishment.

• Varietal selection again proved to be the strongest determinant of irrigated canola grain yield in the second year of experiments at Leeton.
• The three highest yielding varieties were Nuseed® Diamond, Hyola® 50 and Nuseed® GT-50.
• Sowing time and variety interaction affected lodging, grain yield and harvest index (HI).
• Plant population alone only affected lodging but the variety interaction affected lodging and the harvest index.

• Lupin yield loss caused by delaying sowing by 3 or 4 days is similar to the yield loss caused by one radish plant per square metre growing within the crop.
• As more populations of wild radish develop resistance to common herbicides it becomes critical to obtain effective weed control before and at seeding.

• If sown by mid May, hybrid varieties produced dry matter for grazing in the order of 1.5 to 2.0 t/ha.
• Grain yield was reduced fro most varieties by grazing, compared to no grazing, but was thought to be a result of waterlogging and severe defoliation.
• Waterlogging also affected the yield of ungrazed varieties, especially if sown in June.
• Canola appears to be more sensitive than cereals to grazing under adverse weather and grazing conditions.

• Sowing time is essential for dry matter production and yield preservation 
• Poor growing conditions, the winter doldrums, during recovery from grazing seem to reduce final grain yield. 
• Canola appears to be more sensitive to grazing than cereals, especially, but not solely, under adverse weather and grazing conditions.
• With a traditional a sowing time, mid May, dry matter production levels didn’t reach a level that warrant taking the risk of impacting on grain yield when compared to grazing cereals.
• Even following established grazing protocols, that work north of the divide, grazing reduced grain yield for most varieties. 
• This trend has been the case over the 3 years we have conducted grazing canola trials in SW Victoria. 
• This trial suggests that yield loses associated with grazing are less with the newly released winter habit hybrids Hyola 930 and Hyola 971 when compared with most spring and winter types of canola.
• Initial work is suggesting that spring sown winter habit canola varieties may reverse the decline in yield associated with grazing and generate a large amount of feed out of season.

The results suggest using nitrogen and/or increasing sowing rates will increase drymatter available for grazing at late tillering but if grazed these treatments will have a positive impact on grain yield.

The data from this trial supports the theory that an early sowing date will increase DM and total N fixation in Percy and Morava.

Grazing of the cereals up to growth stage 31 had no significant impact on grain yield but it did reduce the amount of stubble remaining post harvest.

• Although time of heading and flowering are considered the most sensitive stages for frost damage in cereals, sensitivity to early frost damage occurs from the start of stem elongation and is referred to as ‘stem frost’.

• Stem frost can be minimised by matching sowing date and cultivar phenology so that stem elongation starts after the period of greatest frost risk.

• Varieties that started stem elongation early (fast developing varieties sown early) were exposed to an increased number of frosts during the susceptible development stages, whilst winter types sown early had an extended vegetative period and were not exposed to the same frost risk, which reduced damage from stem frost.

• Crops can recover from stem frost where there is moisture available to support new tiller growth. However, the resulting effect on phasic development stage synchrony leads to delayed maturity and harvest issues.

• There was no observed difference in frost tolerance of specific cereal species observed in 2017.

When canola was sown into wheat stubble in an east-west direction, long stubble (42cm) significantly reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and reduced true leaf number up to mid-winter.

Although there were trends suggesting a reduction in dry matter (DM) production at the yellow bud stage (GS3.7) as a result of increasing stubble height, the differences were not statistically significant.

The average canola yield of the trial was 1.58t/ha with no significant differences in either yield or oil content due to stubble height of the previous wheat crop.

The results mirror a trial conducted at Dookie, where yields in long stubble were 3.70t/ha and 3.75t/ha in short stubble. At this site there were significant reductions in DM production early in the season in the long stubble treatment.

In 2019, the three trial sites experienced vastly different rainfall and crop germination patterns. The Kojonup site had good soil moisture throughout the growing season resulting in a rapid crop germination. The York and Miling sites however were seeded into completely dry conditions with the wheat germination in the TOS 1 treatments occurring more than six weeks after seeding. The bioassay experiment showed that at all sites, Sakura was the most persistent herbicide. This was evident in the field results where the persistence and activity of Sakura resulted in lower ryegrass emergence, lower seed production and a higher wheat yield. Furthermore, the results showed that at the Kojonup site, which was sown into excellent soil moisture, Trifluralin was also very effective.

The TOS response was variable; the first time of seeding showed better weed control and wheat yields at Miling and York whereas the delayed time of seeding was advisable at the moist Kojonup site. It was also found that increasing the wheat density increased crop competition which in turn reduced ryegrass emergence, ryegrass biomass and ryegrass seed production for all herbicide treatments studied. 

• There were no advantages gained by using seed treatments when sowing wheat with granular NP fertilisers.
• On grey calcareous soils all fluid fertilisers increased early plant vigour and grain yield, and on red soils fluids containing zinc and manganese increased grain yields.
• In this season there were no differences in dry matter or yield between crops grown from certified or local seed.

• Select crops best adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of your region; faba bean is the pulse crop best adapted to soils prone to waterlogging.
• Avoid soils with acidic subsurface layers and/or shallow topsoil that limit root development and impermeable subsoil that restrict drainage.
• Test soil pH at 5cm intervals to a depth of 20 cm, to detect subsurface acidity.
• Select paddocks at least two years before sowing acid-sensitive crops to allow time for applied lime to react and increase soil pH, if required.
• Sow early in the recommended sowing window for your location, to encourage effective nodulation, early vigour and biomass accumulation before the onset of cold, wet conditions.

Phosphorus was applied as Triple Super drilled with seed. The result was lower plant densities as phosphorus rates increased.

For an interpretation of results please see the attached trial report.

This demonstration clearly showed that by adding a small amount of barley (16kg/ha) to serradella when re-seeding, early winter feed for livestock can be significantly increased.  However, as the photos from early September indicate, the serradella growth in spring can be held back due to competition from the barley. Increasing the frequency and intensity of grazing would help, as would the application of a grass selective herbicide to kill the barley in early spring when feed is becoming abundant. If the season was very poor, the barley might be left to increase total pasture production and groundcover for summer.  

There was a significant response to all nitrogen applications.

In an irrigated trial on Mackellar (feed wheat) at Hagley, Tasmania, plot yields ranged from 6.6 – 9.4 t/ha depending on the level of nitrogen and fungicide input. There was a significant response to nitrogen application, with an optimum that varied from 60 ‐120 kg/ha depending on whether fungicide was applied. There was a significant yield interaction (P=0.003) between the amount of applied nitrogen and the level of fungicide input, whereby the higher the level of applied nitrogen the greater was the need for fungicide input. Without fungicide application at stem elongation the optimum nitrogen input for the crop was 60 kg/ha N; however with fungicide application it was at least 90 kg/ha N. There was a significant increase in grain protein associated with increasing nitrogen level in the range of 60 ‐120 kg/ha N and a significant increase in protein associated with fungicide application.

• Stubble rentention increased the severity of frost events in experiments over two years
• There was no difference in floret sterility due to stubble treatment, but grain yield was highest where stubble was removed by burning. 
• Stubble rentention reduced the amount of heat stored in the soil during spring. With less heat stored there is less capacity for energy release at night to buffer against frost damage.
• Consider management strategies that avoid frost (e.g. crop choice, sowing date, variety choice) where high stubble loads are retained at sowing. 

The application of compost at 2 t/ha did not result in higher returns and the response under compost plus fertiliser treatments could be attributed to the application of fertiliser. Spading did not return any further gains in terms of yield or quality at this site in 2013. The high cost of spading and compost in the first year, have negatively influenced profit outcomes. Depending on future yield improvements, these treatments may pay for themselves over the longer term.

No measureable changes in soil condition as a result of adding 2 t/ha compost were measured in 2013 and 2014 that would add value to the long term profit of this site.

Machinery used for applying compost caused some compaction and due to the dry post-sowing conditions, crop germination was very patchy. The trial site experienced significant moisture stress early in the season and may not be representative of seasons experiencing an average or wetter start.

There was no yield benefit using bio-degradable polymer film on late sown barley and field peas.

• The combination of Triazine Tolerant (TT) and Roundup Ready (RR) herbicide provided superior control of ryegrass and wild radish over individual chemistry treatments.
• Canola is an important rotational winter crop however, with increasing herbicide resistance across multiple chemistries in WA, growers are experiencing increasingly limited options with the current herbicide tolerance technologies available.
• Hyola RT® Technology allows the combination of strong knockdown and residual broad-spectrum herbicides from different herbicide groups and modes of action, targeting a wide range of weed species.
•  Hyola RT® will provide an important role in addressing the increasing Clethodim resistance problem.
• RT® dual herbicide tolerant Hybrids have now demonstrated their value as a new competitive integrated weed management (IWM) tool, also providing increased convenience and flexibility of in-crop weed control.

• The value of stored soil moisture at seeding in the Northern Agricultural Region of WA is not well understood.
• In trials so far, value of stored soil moisture at seeding has varied depending on season and soil type.
• In 2013, additional water at seeding increased yield by about 500 kg/ha at the sand site, and by 1000-2000 t/ha at the loam site.
• Trials such as these will help to unravel the value of stored soil moisture so that it can better be used as a predictor of crop performance and nutritional requirements.
• Available water at sowing is a poor predictor of expected yield and cannot be used as a simple tool for adjusting input levels. We need to develop an ability to understand when and why the water will be of benefit. 

• Across three years addition of trace elements and fluid fungicide in-furrow did not provide increases in emergence, tillering or final yield - although this contradicts what other farmers have reported.
• Liquid N at sowing can improve crop emergence and early vigour, especially under dry conditions .
• Full liquid systems did not provide a profit benefit (due to higher input costs) even where they did provide increased yield which was not in all years.
• Recommendation most likely to provide higher returns for this area will be an in-furrow fertiliser system that incorporates some elements of liquid nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser ,trace elements, fungicides and granular phosphorus and nitrogen fertiliser.

This trial illustrated that there can be some significant benefits to deep ripping post sowing.

• The average yields peaked at the mid May sowing.
• Grain quality results were not available at the time of print, but will be available by the Crop Updates.

• Early sowing of barley may be an effective way of controlling ryegrass growth and limiting seed set.
• Results in wheat are more variable than for barley: at Wanilla, mid-May seemed the optimal time of sowing to reduce ryegrass with less effect obvious at Yeelanna.
• Higher seeding rates also followed the same trend, with little ryegrass suppression benefit seen in wheat but a benefit evident in barley.
• Increasing seeding rate did not improve wheat yields significantly however barley (Fleet) did seem to benefit from higher seeding rates when sown late (mid-June).

• Early sowing of barley may be an effective way of controlling ryegrass growth and limiting seed set.
• Results in wheat are more variable than for barley: at Wanilla, mid-May seemed the optimal time of sowing to reduce ryegrass with less effect obvious at Yeelanna.
• Higher seeding rates also followed the same trend, with little ryegrass suppression benefit seen in wheat but a benefit evident in barley.
• Increasing seeding rate did not improve wheat yields significantly however barley (Fleet) did seem to benefit from higher seeding rates when sown late (mid-June).

• The highest yielding wheat variety in the time of sowing trial at Hart in 2010 was Yitpi (4.81 t/ha) sown on May 1st.
• Wheat varieties Axe and Gladius increased grain yield as time of sowing was delayed from May 1st until May 29th.

• The highest yielding treatment in the wheat time of sowing trial at Hart in 2009 was Gladius sown on the 30th of April.
• Later maturing varieties were best sown in early May.
• Axe is a good option for sowing in late May.

• Time of sowing was not important for yield in a wet rainfall year with a soft finish.
• Varietal selection was a bigger contributor to grain yield than the time of sowing in 2010. Choosing a variety well-adapted to a range of seasons will provide the greatest returns in the long term.
• Hindmarsh performs well in dry and wet years, consistently yielding well at all sowing times. Commander was the best of the malt varieties, yielding similarly to Hindmarsh. However, Commander may struggle in drier years.

• Early sowing of cereals, wheat, barley or oats, gave excellent grazing, hay or grain outcomes in 2009.
• The barley gave similar or better all round performance than the wheat or oats.

• Frame was the highest yielding variety when sown on the 1st May.
• As sowing date was delayed the early maturing variety Axe out yielded later maturing varieties Gladius and Frame.

• TOS1 was sown in mid May and established well.
• TOS2 was sown late May but did not emerge until late June.
• TOS3 was sown late June and emerged a few days later.

• The ideal sowing time for soybeans in southern NSW is from mid-November to early December.
• Delaying sowing until late December can result in reduced grain yield.

For further information please see attached trial report.

In 2012, early sown barley and canola gave the highest yields and gross returns. The early sown crops were able to withstand frosts and avoid the worst of the dry spring. Despite the different growth habit (erect vs prostrate) of many of the barley varieties, no one variety responded better to the altered sowing times or density than any other. Growers should plant all barley varieties at their chosen timing and plant density, and make their selection on the basis of other factors (e.g. disease resistance).

In 2012, early sown barley and canola gave the highest yields and gross returns. The early sown crops were able to withstand frosts and avoid the worst of the dry spring. Despite the different growth habit (erect vs prostrate) of many of the barley varieties, no one variety responded better to the altered sowing times or density than any other. Growers should plant all barley varieties at their chosen timing and plant density, and make their selection on the basis of other factors (e.g. disease resistance).

Sowing early increased yields by 0.5t/ha at Watchupga East and Horsham. Corack and Mace topped the yields at Watchupga East. Cobra and Mace were the highest yielding varieties at Horsham.

• There were significant differences in grain yield (GY) between treatments (N kg/ha and timing), however, GY was particularly low in all treatments. 
• Total nitrogen (N) increased GY significantly up to 30kg N/ha.
• Canola oil percentage decreased as N rate increased. High rates of N reduced oil significantly.
• Applying N late (12 weeks after sowing (WAS) reduced canola oil percentage, however, not significantly.
• Gross margins decreased as N rates increased, but all gross margins (GM) were negative due to poor GY. Sturt had better gross margins than Pioneer 43Y23RR due to the higher seed costs associated with RR seed.
• Pioneer 43Y23RR produced higher GY at all rates and timings of applied N other than 10N seeding and 20N 12WAS.

• Canola responded to N applied as late as 12 weeks after seeding but not as much as to N applied at 4 or 8 weeks.  Hyola 404 RR and CB Telfer responded similarly in terms of yield.
• Nitrogen reduced oil %, and late N reduced it more than early N.  Oil was more sensitive to applied N in CB Telfer than in Hyola 404 RR.
• Grain yield continued to respond to 100 kg N/ha but the highest gross margin was at 75 kg/ha in Hyola 404 RR and at 100 kg/ha in CB Telfer.

In this 2013 trial;

• Canola grain yield responded positively to nitrogen application.
• Canola oil content responded negatively to nitrogen application.
• Therefore a wide number of treatments produced equal highest gross margins.
• The lowest rate of nitrogen treatment to produce maximum returns was 25 kg N/ha applied 4 weeks after sowing.
• We found treatments applied 12 weeks after sowing when the canola was flowering produced. similar results to applications applied at 8 weeks after sowing – which is the industry norm.
• Hyola 404RR produced higher oil but equal yield and gross margins to CB Telfer.

• Canola grain yield increased with nitrogen application up to 50 kg N/ha
• Timing of nitrogen application had no effect on grain yield
• Canola oil decreased as nitrogen rate increased
• Applying nitrogen late (12 weeks after sowing) reduced oil%, but only if total N applied was 50 kg/ha
• Overall gross margins were similar at all rates of applied nitrogen or timing of nitrogen application - due to the decline of oil% as nitrogen increased
• Hyola 404RR produced higher yields, oil and gross margins than CB Telfer TT - at all rates and timings of nitrogen application.

• Wheat, barley, triticale, canary seed, sorghum, sunflowers, millet and panicum were grown in a copper deficient clay soil in pots in the glasshouse.
• For rates of copper from 0 to 6 mg per pot for winter crops, and the same plus 60 mg per pot applied to the summer crops.
• A rate of 6 mg per pot was not sufficient to maximise yield from the winter crops but some are crops produced maximum yields when 60 mg per pot was applied.
• Significant differences intolerance to copper deficiency were apparent between varieties within crops.
• Only the summer crops in triticale produce grain when nearly all the lowest rates of copper were applied.

• In 2017 no consistent differences in wheat yield were observed among plots established with different sowing implements.

• Although there was a very late break to the season, cooler conditions through September and October maintained good yields.
• Yield varied from 1.46 - 2.56t/ha. Yarrum, Kaspa and Excell were the highest yielding varieties.
• There was no significant difference between seeding rates, except for 16 plants/m2 which yielded significantly less than the other seeding rates. There were not enough plants to compensate for yield in the short season

• Field peas yielded significantly higher then both lupins and vetch.
• Field peas and undersown barley had significantly higher gross margins than lupin and vetch.
• In terms of gross margins there was no significant difference between field peas/undersown barley, undersown barley/vetch and lupins/vetch.
• When choosing to grow a pulse crop the following management issues are critical: time of sowing, paddock selection, species selection and disease and pest management.

• Tonic plantain and Grouse chicory are worth considering as summer forages, with the Tonic plantain likely to persist through the following winter and longer. Although not tried, Italian ryegrass (or perennial ryegrass) could be oversown for more winter feed. In this trial, winter feed production from Tonic plantain and sub clover was excellent, no doubt partially due to the high sub clover seed reserves and partially due to the high soil fertility on Tremaine’s.
• Banquet tetraploid hybrid perennial ryegrass could be considered for a medium term high quality pasture for finishing lambs/weaners in high fertility paddocks, with controlled rotational grazing over summer.

• Wheat yields were significantly reduced by competition from barley and brome grass.
• The use of knockdown post sowing but pre-emergent provided excellent control of the grass weeds, which translated into a yield benefit.
• The trends in control of grass weeds and yield benefits in barley were similar to the results seen in wheat.

The grain yields of TM05 and TM08 are not a true reflection of their potential yields because of frosted seed at sowing time. As well heavy rain approximately 10 days prior to harvest would have had some effect on grain yields.

Trifluralin and related Group D herbicides are effective in controlling Group A herbicide resistant ryegrass, however when they are consistently used without other control practices resistance will develop. Ryegrass with Group D (trifluralin) resistance is already common in some areas.

Differences in trifluralin tolerances exist between different wheat varieties, however the differences were not consistent. Over three years of trial work Silverstar was intolerant to trifluralin in one year (30% yield loss at Triflur480 2.4L/ha IBS in 1998) and tolerant in 1999 and 2000. In 2000 only Yitpi suffered a yield loss (20% yield loss at Triflur480 2.4L/ha IBS). There are no differences in tolerance when applying trifluralin immediately prior to sowing or post sowing pre-emergent as long as the trifluralin is not incorporated into the sowing band. Trifluralin residues in grain were below the Minimum Residue Level (less than 0.05ppm) for the plots with trifluralin used at the registered rate or at the high application rate (Triflur480 2.4L/ha). Trifluralin is registered at 0.8L/ha of Triflur480 applied at least 7 days prior to sowing. NuFarm have applied to the NRA for changes to the Triflur480 label - changes relate to higher rates for use in minimum tillage.

The yields of the different Trifluralin treatments and sowing depths ranged from 1.5 to 2.1 t/ha.

• The average yield for the Bairnsdale tritical trial was 2.77 t/ha. The highest yielding variety was AT5731 with 3.07 t/ha, a new variety due for commercial release in 2010.
• Grain quality was reduced due to unfavourable seasonal conditions during grain fill, the main parameter affected were test weights and screenings.
• The yield potential of the trial may have been reduced due to the later sowing in comparison to the Bairnsdale wheat and barley variety trials.
• An evaluation of sowing date and effect of grazing was conducted in the 2009 Cereal Grazing Trial at the Bairnsdale research site.

• Winter habit canola has been successfully sown in spring, grazed over summer and harvested for grain in 2012, 2013 and 2014.
• Establishing canola in spring means larger, more resilient plants in autumn with less impact from slugs and waterlogging.
• Forage value comparable to commercially available dedicated forage rapes over summer and autumn with added benefit of oil seed production.
• Grazing management and timing of stock removal is proving to have an impact on grain yield.
• Vernalisation means winter wheats have the potential to be used in the same way.
   

Pre-sowing: limed and cultivated by farmer.

Early season: very slow growth and stressed.

Mid season: very stressed until good rain in September.

Pre-harvest: droughted.

• The 2015 season was cooler than 2014 which affected how canola varieties developed and grain yields.
• Early sowing presents a good opportunity to improve canola water use efficiency and yields but variety selection is important.

At three field sites in WA, increased wheat yield was achieved at lower nitrogen (N) application rates when N was balanced with appropriate phosphorous (P), potassium (K) and sulphur (S) applications. Wheat yield was driven by the ratio of N to P and K rather than the absolute concentrations of the nutrients and it is possible to increase profit margins by balancing nutrient inputs.

The level of background nutrients present in the soil at sowing was a key factor in determining the responsiveness of yield to fertiliser applications and how profitable the fertiliser treatments were. Pre-season soil testing to determine the level of residual nutrients will allow growers to balance their nutrient inputs and help to maximise profits.

• Flowering time is determined by responses to vernalisation, photoperiod and earliness per se.
• Match variety and sowing time to ensure flowering occurs during the optimal period for your growing environment.

• Slow maturing varieties sown early have potential to increase profitability, even in low rainfall areas.
• The late break to the season in 2012 in the UN, did not allow the long season variety to perform.
• Dry sowing of wheat 5 weeks before the opening rains produced equal or higher yields to wheat sown on the break.