• Third and final year of trials for the GRDC funded project ‘Southern Irrigated Cereal and Canola Achieving Target yields’ (DAN00198).
• Wheat and canola dual purpose trials were established at Bool Lagoon under irrigation.
• Seasonal conditions dictated the use of the dual purpose crops.
• Due to inundation trial results must be interpreted with caution.
• Variety specific agronomy packages will be developed from data collected over the duration of this project.

• Winter canola had greater DM production compared to spring canola.
• Time of sowing significantly influenced canola grain yields.
• Grazing Manning did not result in a yield penalty, but grazing Trojan wheat did; need to be careful not to graze outside of the “safe” grazing window.

Bannister had the highest grain yields with 9.00 t/ha.

Grazing did impact on yield in Bannister, but not Durack or Yallara.

Additional N above the control did not increase grain yields. Based on the trial results, Bannister nitrogen requirement was 25 kg N/t, whereas Yallara and Durack required 35 kg N/t.

Dry matter harvested (simulated grazing) at around GS31 ranged between 0.81 and 0.99 t/ha (NS)

Crop stubbles provide a valuable feed source for stock over the summer period. The results from this trial indicate that grazing stubbles does not reduce either the amount of soil water stored during the summer fallow period or subsequent crop yield. In low rainfall environments, it is rarely possible to grow sufficient stubble to improve summer fallow efficiency by reducing evaporation (>5t/ha): growers should make use of this valuable feed source. Growers should maintain at least 70 per cent stubble cover (about 2t/ha of cereal stubble) to minimise the risk of wind erosion.

• Minnipa Agriculture Centre results showed significant yield advantage with earlier sowing in trial data even in a great season.
• Weeds can have a large effect on early sown crops, but most farmers try to have some paddocks set up to sow early.
• If early sowing is an option take advantage of it.

Zinc needs to be applied as part of the fertiliser program every three to four years in the Wimmera and Mallee. The use of zinc as a seed dressing or foliar application will only be beneficial when the paddock has had a poor zinc history. In trials at the Rupanyup site where zinc had been applied 2 out of the last 5 years there were no yield benefits of adding more zinc even to responsive crops such as faba beans and lentils.

• Monitor canola crops at windrowing for the presence of Blackleg disease.
• Know the Resistance group your canola variety and be prepared to change both variety and resistance group if required.

KI’s 7 golden rules for successful establishment

•  Good weed control is absolutely critical – it’s a waste of time seeding if you don’t get weed kill.
•  Apply broad spectrum insecticides pre-seeding.
• Seed in early Spring.
•  Seed at 2kg/ha.
•  Ensure good seed soil contact.
•  Allow the plants to become well established before grazing.
•  Continually monitor the paddock, after seeding for insects and pests and during the first graze to ensure stock are not pulling up runners.

• Weed control is essential for effective kikuyu establishment.
• Two sprays of round up is the ‘safest’ bet although you do lose some grazing value and may have difficulties with seeding at the optimum time if the paddock is too wet to spray early.
• Further work is required to quantify the benefits of application of TM 21 on kikuyu pastures on KI.

• Weed control is essential for effective kikuyu establishment.
• Two sprays of round up is the ‘safest’ bet although you do lose some grazing value and may have difficulties with seeding at the optimum time if the paddock is too wet to spray early.
• Further work is required to quantify the benefits of application of TM 21 on kikuyu pastures on KI.

• Following drought affected cereals, labile P concentration was greater in the crop row than in the inter row.
• There is potential to exploit carry over P following 2006.
• In addition this may also have implications for those with auto steer systems with 2cm accuracy to seed into higher concentration of P in last years failed or low yielding crops.

Lambs grazed on forage brassica at Jil Jil from November 2011 to early January 2012 achieved adequate growth rates (230 g/head/day). The forage brassica provided green paddock feed for nearly two months during harvest, saving stubbles for later use and avoiding hand feeding.

In the post emergent treatments a range of herbicides produced very good control of all oilseed and legume crops included.

• In the post-emergent treatments a range of herbicides produced very good control of all oilseed and legume crops included.

• In the post emergent treatments, a range of herbicides produced very good control of all oilseed and legume crops included.

• In the post emergent treatments a range of herbicides produced very good control of all oilseed and legume crops included.
• Lucerne was significantly damaged by almost all herbicides applied.

• Good soil moisture conditions allowed clear separation of relatively safe and more damaging treatments.
• Wilpena sulla showed improved tolerance to Simazine and Broadstrike at the 5 node stage.
• At the 6 node stage Hussar and Crusader did a good job of controlling all crops.

good nodulation in the uninoculated treatments, and the absence of growth or yield responses to inoculation in this trial, indicated that pulses have been grown sufficiently often in this particular paddock (lentil in 2007 and pulses every two/three years previously) to maintain appropriately high rhizobial populations in the soil. as the numbers of rhizobia decline in the soil over time, consider inoculation based on, paddock history and length of time since growing the last legume crops. Pulses often benefit from inoculation if there has not been a legume grown in the paddock for six years. where rhizobial populations are low in the soil, inoculation of legumes at sowing is extremely important to ensure adequate nitrogen fixation

• In all but Paravic and Ascot, the innoculated crop yielded better than the uninnoculated crop. In fact, the average gross return for the innoculated crops was $346 per hectare, versus $247 per hectare for the uninnoculated crops. This represents an extra return of $99 per hectare. 
• It is therefore recommended that in all cases, legume crops should be innoculated with the correct strain of rhizobia prior to sowing. It is very cheap insurance against the bacteria not being present in the soil. 

• These results showed that field pea was much better suited to the deep sand than lentil, albus lupin and chickpea.
• This is consistent with results of the previous study undertaken in 2005. 

2018 Season 

• While growing season conditions were dry and grain yields were low and therefore not profitable, both Bolt lentils and Gunyah field peas yielded highest of the 5 break crop species grown at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. Soil boron levels were relatively high at this site.
• Following waterlogged conditions in August, Bonito canola out yielded the 4 four legume break crop species grown at the Gibson demonstration site, with Samira faba beans a close second.
• The addition of an extra 72 Units of nitrogen (171L Flexi-N delivered in 3 incremental applications) to the 5 break crops at the Gibson demonstration site resulted in significant increases in yield and earnings before tax profit in both Bonito canola and Samira faba beans but made little difference to the performance of PBA Strikers chickpeas, Morava vetch and Jurien lupins. The addition of extra nitrogen to Faba beans lifted yield by an average of 0.763t/ha taking it to 2.473t/ha which was close to the average yield of un-topped-up canola (2.169t/ha).
• In terms of earnings before tax, the faba bean crop was the most profitable of the 5 break crops grown at Gibson. It is important to note though that the $800/tonne price seen for faba beans in February 2018 was well above both the five and ten year average for this crop.

2019 Season 

• Annual rainfall was well below average in 2019 at all 5 demonstration sites in the Esperance Port Zone and an unprecedented frost event in September affected crop flowering at the Ravensthorpe, Salmon Gums and Beaumont sites. It’s important these seasonal conditions are factored to in to interpretation of legume crop performance at these sites.
• Poor growing conditions at the Ravensthorpe demonstration site resulted in very low yields and none of the break crops grown were profitable. The State Government declared part of the Ravensthorpe Shire as water deficient on 7th May 2019 and further parts of the Shire on 13th February 2020.
• Reasonable rainfall in August stimulated germination of broadleaf weeds resulting in a higher than ideal weed burden in all break crop species strips at the Ravensthorpe site. This highlights the limited control options available for late weed germination in legumes.
• At the Coomalbidgup demonstration site while lupins yielded highest of the break crop species grown, they were not profitable, making an EBT tax loss. Chickpeas were the only profitable break crop species grown at this site; lower seasonal rainfall meant the waterlogging conditions that commonly prevail at this location were not a constraint on chickpea yield. An average rainfall year would likely result in chickpea yield losses due to their susceptibility waterlogging.
• Dry conditions at the start of the season at Coomalbidgup reduced herbicide efficacy but the site did not have a high background broadleaf weed pressure so competition was unlikely to have greatly reduced crop yield.
• Poor growing conditions at the Beaumont demonstration site, which entailed a dry start, a severe frost at flowering and a very dry finish resulted in none of the 5 break crops grown performing profitably. The dry start at this site affected plant establishment of the chickpeas and faba beans in particular. Seeding equipment issues handling the large seed size of the faba beans also reduced establishment of the beans.
• Poor growing conditions, which entailed 2 dry preceding years resulting in very low subsoil moisture at the start of the season, a dry start, a dry growing season, a severe frost at flowering and a dry finish meant that Scepter wheat yields were below average at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. There was no significant difference in wheat yields achieved between the 2018 break crop species treatments. Scepter was profitable after each of the 2018 break crop species except in those replicates following vetch. Wheat after lentils were most profitable with an EBT return of $50/ha, followed by wheat after field peas at $34/ha.
• At the Gibson Demonstration Site wheat following vetch grown in 2018 yielded highest and was therefore the most profitable. Wheat following faba beans and lupins grown in 2018 yielded next highest; their yields being statistically similar. Wheat in replicates following 2018 canola and chickpeas were similar and yielded lowest of the 2018 break crop species treatments.
• Wheat yield in replicates that received an additional 171L/ha of Flexi N in 2018 yielded higher than those that did not and as such were more profitable.
• Tissue test data and wheat yields achieved at the Gibson site suggested nitrogen carryover from 2018 to the 2019 cropping season had occurred. This was not reflected in the pre-seeding soil test data demonstrating the significance of low soil moisture in impeding soil nitrogen mineralization. These results emphasise the importance of understanding mineralization when interpreting soil test results in dry conditions and the merits of coupling autumn soil testing with in-crop tissue or soil testing to support in-crop nutrition decisions.

• Growers and advisers should be vigilant in applying protective fungicide sprays in chickpea and lentil crops for ascochyta blight.
• Many current and minor use permit fungicides trialed at Hart in 2017 provided good preventative control (less than 10% of plants infected) for ascochyta blight including; chlorothalonil, Aviator Xpro, Cabrio and Captan.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Early sown lentils consistently out-yielding those sown later, as the heat wave event in early
  November compromised yield of late sown lentil crops by terminating seed fill prematurely.
• The 2009 data was inconclusive in determining whether foliar fungicides for BGM control
  can be delayed until after the canopy closure stage in situations where conditions are not
  conducive for disease development at canopy closure (ie less than 10oC at night and 18oC
  during the day).
• The rapid finish to the season favoured early maturing varieties PBAFlash and CIPAL610 at
  both sites, averaging 5-32% above site means across sowing dates.
• Canopy closure sprays with follow up sprays dependent upon disease observation were
  successful in reducing BGM in all varieties tested at Paskeville, even at the early sowing
  date.

• The take home message from the lentil production trial in a disease-free year is that lentils should to be sown prior to mid June, preferably in the late May to mid June period to achieve optimum yields.
• A difference of 1t/ha was achieved between sowing in late May compared to an early July sowing. However it must be remembered that with an early sowing if crops are reaching canopy closure in late winter/early spring then significant levels of disease could be expected under conditions conductive to disease.
• Fungicide applications made no improvements to yield regardless of fungicide type, application timing or the number of applications made.
• However, if the season had been wetter with a higher disease incidence, then crops may have benefited from one or more fungicide applications.

This trial indicated that rolling just prior to coleoptile emergence delivered a desirable paddock surface for harvest without impacting on yield. There have however been reported cases of shoot damage in crops when rolled at this stage.

• Desiccating lentil crops was critical in 2010 to minimising losses by allowing an earlier harvest, prior to the heavy rainfall events. Rainfall affected crops yielded up to 50% less.
• The earlier maturing varieties PBA Flash and PBA Blitz offer higher yields in drier years but not necessarily in long seasons such as 2010.  
• In the Mallee, PBA Blitz offers good disease resistance which improves reliability and yield and its medium large seed makes it attractive for export.
• Late in 2010 in the Mallee, disease and virus were observed. These may have resulted in higher seed infection and inoculum levels. Be prepared for higher disease and virus levels in 2011.

• Field peas and vetch were most profitable in this low rainfall year. While grains yields were low, all crops either ‘broke even’ or made a small profit, indicating that pulses have a fit in farming systems in this region with additional benefits achieved in the following crop. Always consider varietal performance over several seasons to ensure suitability. 

Herbicide damage on crops was negligible. Grain yield of PBA Hurricane XT (1.94 t/ha) was 150 kg/ha greater than PBA Hallmark XT, at Coomandook, 2019.

When sowing was delayed until rains in May (Wet) overall grain yields in varieties decreased by 20 – 80% in lentil, 40 – 80% in chickpea and 30 – 60% in field pea compared to Early and Dry sowing in April.

Light grazing was shown to leave most of the crop residue horizontal and detached but there were similar amounts of residue to the ungrazed plots. Grazing over summer and winter reduced crop yield at one site and further work on this may be required.

• Modest autumn grazing of no-till crop stubbles sometimes leads to small measurable increases in surface soil bulk density.
• In two seasons, on soils in the Mallee and Wimmera, modest autumn grazing of no-till crop stubbles had no measurable effect on crop yield, quality or weed seed burial.

• For the first time sheep grazing behaviour in a Mallee paddock was monitored and mapped using GPS tracking collars.
• Sheep grazed the entire stubble paddock as they sought out spilt grain during the summer fallow, but they preferred to graze on sandy soil types first.
• While grazing a vetch pasture in the same paddock, livestock spent 50% of the time grazing only 25% of the paddock and 25% of the paddock was not utilised. (iv) At least $4000 profit was foregone from the paddock through the under-utilisation of the vetch pasture.
• Within-paddock fencing technology in large Mallee paddocks has the potential to capture this potential profit by improving feed utilisation.

• For the first time sheep grazing behaviour in a Mallee paddock was monitored and mapped using GPS tracking collars.
• Sheep grazed the entire stubble paddock as they sought out spilt grain during the summer fallow, but they preferred to graze on sandy soil types first.
• While grazing a vetch pasture in the same paddock, livestock spent 50% of the time grazing only 25% of the paddock and 25% of the paddock was not utilised.

Light to moderate grazing of sheep on no-till stubbles in autumn is unlikely to have detrimental impacts on crop growth in the following season.

• Disease suppression has not developed in this soil type after 8 years.
• Higher nutrition treatments allowed crops to cope better with high disease levels in both 2010 and 2011.
• Canola will reduce Rhizoctonia inoculum but only one year of wheat will result in high levels of Rhizoctonia inoculum again.
• In good seasons the high input treatments have shown that district practice performance is limited by poor nutrition.

• The higher input brassica break system had higher cereal yields than the other systems in 2009.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum levels were higher under the continuous cropping systems compared to the medic pasture and brassica break crops.
• The different rotations and fertiliser systems have resulted in differences in the microbial community (number) and microbial diversity (their ability to use different sources of carbon).
• Disease suppression is still the same in all rotations.

• After 18 years there was no standout rotation, in terms of profitability, in any given season. All  rotations had their pros and cons in both wet and dry years. Therefore having a mix
  of rotations and doing things on time is a recipe for a resilient business.
• The most profitable rotation for the duration of the trial was the continuous cropping rotation, which included two wheat crops followed by a pulse crop in a no-till system. The addition of the pulse crop every third year was beneficial, especially for adding extra nitrogen, however added issues such as broadleaf weed blowouts with weeds like fumitory.

 Mowing to simulate grazing reduced grain yield and plant height. The application of Prosaro at the 3-4 leaf stage increased grain yield over the nil application treatment by reducing the level of internal infection caused by blackleg. The later application of Prosaro (8-10 leaf stage) also decreased the amount of blackleg compared to either the nil or the mowed at 8-10 leaf treatments. 

 Mowing to simulate grazing reduced grain yield and plant height. The application of Prosaro at the 3-4 leaf stage increased grain yield over the nil application treatment by reducing the level of internal infection caused by blackleg. The later application of Prosaro (8-10 leaf stage) also decreased the amount of blackleg compared to either the nil or the mowed at 8-10 leaf treatments. 
 

• Autumn removal of lucerne significantly decreased subsequent winter crop yields compared to spring removal of lucerne.
• Crops sown after spring removal of lucerne yielded the same as the crops grown in a continuous crop rotation.
• The crop yield penalty from autumn removal only lasts for one year.
• Apart from Grazon, all other herbicide treatments gave unacceptable lucerne control.
• Cultivation in combination with other herbicides will increase lucerne control by  20 to 30%. 
   

Lucerne (medicago sativa) is being utilised for a range of benefits in modern farming systems. This includes the incorporation of phase farming principles into dryland cropping systems within the Mallee and Wimmera. In the Mallee, recharge rates vary from 5 to 35mm per year under traditional cropping systems. The principle of phase farming involves the tactical insertion of a lucerne pasture in a crop rotation to retrieve deep soil moisture and create a dry band below the rootzone of annual crops.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Pasture cropping across subtropical grasses is viable in the West Midlands but success is dependent on effective weed control, adequate fertility and moisture, and winter dormancy (or suppression) of the perennial pasture.
• Pasture cropping can also provide out of season fodder, improve the feed value of stubbles, and reduce the likelihood of wind erosion and groundwater recharge on deep sandy soils.

Using a combine harvester to manage stubble at harvest was expensive and exposed crops to greater risk of weather damage.  Harvesting tall and inter-row sowing was the cheapest form of stubble management and also gave good establishment.  Burning is cheap and effective at removing stubble, and allowed excellent establishment and greater early vigor for competition with weeds, but may not suit all paddock types.

The main messages from the workshop were:

P fertiliser inputs can be reduced in most situations and MAP will be the product of choice next year,

N fertiliser inputs will be low at sowing, but growers should top-dress crops if the season turns wet,

Work out your requirements as soon as possible and discuss these with your supplier.

• Including legume crops and pastures in rotations increases soil nitrogen even two years after the legume break was grown.
• Brown manure vetch has proven to be the best break phase for increasing soil mineral nitrogen.
• Crop sequences have had small and variable effects on plant available soil water.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum levels are highest following cereal crops and high Rhizoctonia levels have corresponded with poor root health. Canola decreased inoculum levels to levels similar to a fallow.
• High brome grass numbers re-emerged two years after a one year break.

• Milling oat varieties Mitika, Bannister, Dunnart and Yallara yielded highest, closely followed by breeding line WA02Q302-9.
• Yallara and new variety WA02Q302-9 had the greatest dual purpose value, incurring little yield penalty after grazing.

In years with high summer rainfall, growing break crops is low risk and is an effective management strategy for reducing weeds, while growing profitability. Two year breaks are better than one at achieving favourable returns and reducing brome grass populations. The best brome grass control and gross margins were achieved by two year rotations of Clearfield canola/vetch and continuous Clearfield wheat followed by wheat.

Later grazing may have benefits in severely frost prone areas, but in the event that there is no frost, yield will be compromised. Grazing has successfully delayed flowering date and for the early grazing it would appear that there is roughly a 1 day delay in flowering for 2 days grazing.

Later grazing may have benefits in severely frost prone areas, but in the event that there is no frost, yield will be compromised. Grazing has successfully delayed flowering date and for the early grazing it would appear that there is roughly a 1 day delay in flowering for 2 days grazing.

• Increasing incidence of barley grass in cropping paddocks in southern Australia is likely to be associated with selection of more dormant biotypes by weed management practices used by growers.
• In some districts, barley grass management is now being complicated by the evolution of group A resistance. However, there appear to be several effective potential herbicide alternatives for barley grass control in broadleaf crops.
• Integrated weed management strategies are critical to delay onset of herbicide resistant barley grass.

• The key to long term Rhizoctonia disease control is to keep inoculum in the soil low in the crop and pasture phases and increase the ability of crops to tolerate the infection (create environments where plant infection is reduced and plant tolerance to infection improved).
• The success of available disease control strategies, e.g. soil disturbance, fertilizer addition or fungicides is greatest at low to medium inoculum levels and their effectiveness declines as inoculum levels increase or where disease suppressive activity is low.
• Overall, effective control of rhizoctonia disease in cereal crops requires both the reduction of the pathogen inoculum in the soil prior to seeding and control of the infection process in the crop itself. This has to be achieved through management practices spread over more than one cropping season and through an integrated management strategy.

• If crown rot is a concern, conduct a DNA test before sowing a susceptible cereal in 2007.
• Break crops and grass free fallows are still the best practice for reducing crown rot inoculum levels.
• If inoculum levels are high, it will take at least two years free from grass and volunteers, to reduce levels significantly.

• Crown rot has become an important disease to manage in Victorian wheat crops.
• A soil test can be used to identify paddocks most at risk of crown rot.
• In the presence of medium crown rot levels crop losses can be reduced by chosing tolerant crops.

• Incorrect identification could be costly as with Take all and Crown rot require different management.
• Check the bases of plants for symptoms, don’t rely on whiteheads (which need not even be disease related).
• Even where whiteheads are not present, significant yield losses can occur.
• Know the risk of yield loss in your paddocks before sowing. For 2012 crops, this will mean sending summer/autumn soil samples to the Predicta B testing service for analysis.
• The most effective management tool for both diseases is host-free breaks.
• Where old cereal rows have medium to high inoculum levels, sowing between those old rows can reduce yield losses from these diseases, but only if the inter-row has low levels of inoculum.
• When Take-all inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a 12 month break from hosts. If susceptible cereals must be sown, keep the paddock(s) weed free and sow the atrisk paddock(s) last in the cereal cropping program.
• When crown rot inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a break from hosts (2-3 years may be needed). If cereals must be sown then barley is least likely to show yield loss, followed by oats and bread wheat. Do not apply excessive nitrogen early in the season.

• Trial work funded by GRDC via the Southern Pulse Agronomy Program.
• Early sowing of beans in 2016 at Bool Lagoon did not increase grain yields.
• Agronomic treatments applied at Conmurra in 2016 did not alter plant canopy size or plant architecture.
• Trial planning for 2017 is underway.

• Wheat dry matter production and total crop nitrogen was significantly lower in wider row spacing treatments.
• For the all the crops grain yield was significantly lower in the wider row spacing treatments.
• Treatments imposed to manipulate crop growth were unable to save more soil moisture for grain fill.

• Early sown (10th April) SQP Revenue was significantly more responsive than Manning to a programme of agrichemicals for foliar disease and Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus control (BYDV)
• Ungrazed SQP Revenue gave a significant 0.66 t/ha response to a two spray fungicide programme and a further 0.28 t/ha response to an additional insecticide programme for BYDV control, compared to a maximum response of 0.39 t/ha for both fungicide and insecticide for Manning
• Simulated grazing did not significantly reduce yield with either cultivar and gave an average dry matter benefit of 1.89 t/ha with laxed grazing at GS16 & GS30 and 2.39 t/ha with laxed grazed followed by a hard grazing at the GS30
• Leaf rust Puccinia triticina which was the principal disease in the trial was at significantly higher levels in SQP Revenue than Manning and required two foliar fungicides to give control
• In SQP Revenue grazing was not an effective control measure for leaf rust control compared to an early GS31 fungicide when assessed at flag leaf
• At the Westmere site, simulated grazing reduced grain yield by 0.2-0.5 t/ha compared to 1.7 t/ha dry matter removed by grazing
• Low levels of disease at this site did not allow the hypothesis that grazing reduces disease pressure to be tested. 

The occurrence of frost and subsequent frost damage to grain crops is a complex phenomenon. The factors affecting frost damage in wheat crop include seasonal conditions (temperature, humidity, and wind), soils characteristics (topography, soil type), variety (maturity and flowering window) and agronomic management (sowing date, row spacing, and seed and fertiliser inputs). In 2012, frost had significantly damaged and reduced the grain yield for all varieties at two different sowing dates at Wickepin. On average the later sowings (8 June) yielded 1 t/ha greater than the earlier sowings (18 May). Comparatively longer season varieties such as Magenta and Calingiri flowered late, avoided some of frost damage and yielded the highest at both sowings. Preliminary results indicate varieties differed in their relative performance and resilience (i.e. ability to yield) in response to stresses of radiant frosts in both time of sowings. More comprehensive results on variety performance and frost damage will be available after measuring grain quality and sterility estimates.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• Significant crop biomass responses were observed on wheat, barley and canola crops at anthesis.
• The large crop biomass responses under organic amendment treatments were largely due to extra nutrients from lucerne pellets.
• The dramatic crop biomass responses observed at anthesis on canola and barley crops did not translate into grain yield under treatments with lucerne pellets applied, due to severe lodging.
• Soil chemical, physical and biological properties will be monitored to understand the soil-plant interactions, the factors driving the differences in crop response to the various treatments and the residual value of the amendments.

• Incorporating seed behind press wheels resulted in the best crop establishment and one of the higher yields.
• A split application of seed, some broadcast in front of the seeder and some sown through the seeding boots shows promise.
• Soil wetters were ineffective for increasing emergence or grain yield.

Increasing plant density is a tool to improve a crop’s competitiveness against weeds. This strategy did not adversely affect the yield of the varieties at the Liebe Main Trial Site in 2012. 

Nitrogen treatments did not significantly influence crop yield however, did influence grain protein. The soil nitrogen levels and season are likely to have influenced this result. Soil testing and understanding the crops requirements as the season unfolds are useful strategies to manage crop performance economically.

The environment is likely to have had the bigger influence on the performance of the varieties than plant density or nitrogen. Growing season rainfall for 2012 was lower than average and disease patches (likely Rhizoctonia) were evident at the trial. The water use efficiency at the site was 13 kg/mm given growing season rainfall (April to October) was 133mm (plus 34mm in January) and grain yields of 1.98 t/ha across whole trial.

• There was no increase in wheat (2015) or barley (2016) performance with application of manganese on highly calcareous sands, even though these environments have regularly produced severe Mn deficiency in the past.
• Current industry guidelines still appear to be relevant for diagnosing trace element deficiencies in cereal crops and how they are best managed.

• Unusually high manganese concentrations are found in the leaves of manganese tolerant crops.
• We grew these 2 species in solution culture and examine the relationship between manganese and silicon implant tissues.
• Manganese is distributed differently in the leaves of lupin and sunflower.
• In sunflower manganese was found with silicon and calcium in the trichomes and the large vessels of the vascular bundle.
• In lupin the addition of silicon course increasing manganese concentrations in xylem vessels and also in vacuoles of spongy parenchyma.

• There is the potential to increase plant dry matter production and grazing using mixtures of plant species.
• Kaspa peas produced the greatest dry matter overall with 1.7 t DM/ha, and an oats/medic mix also did well (1.3 t DM/ha). The short season oats variety, Durack, produced the greatest dry matter for oats with 1.1 t DM/ha. Toreador disc medic (bred for sandy soils) produced the best dry matter (0.75 t DM/ha) amongst the pasture species.
• In a poor season like 2018, dry matter production in pastures could be improved compared to the current district practice of volunteer annual medics.
• Further research needs to be done on regeneration and herbicide tolerance of newer pasture species.

• The trials across agro-ecological zones have highlighted differences between varieties in their ability to respond to a range of production drivers over varied environments and seasons.
• There was no varietal difference between Mace and Trojan at Minnipa with both yielding an average of 1.7 t/ha, and the ungrazed treatment yielded 0.2 t/ha higher than the grazed. There was no difference in grazing response between cultivars.
• Nitrogen (N) can provide assistance in plant recovery through higher yields and grain quality with in-season application of N after grazing.

• Proper rotations (irrespective of tillage methods) incorporating no more than two cereal crops in sequence with the addition of either a break crop or a fallow once in every three years is ideal. This rotation allows a very productive and sustainable farming system in our environment.
• The most profitable system since 1999 has been two years of cereal followed by a break crop such as peas under no till.
• No till systems are now becoming more profitable in the trial than cultivated systems under every rotation.
• No till will work on our problem soils so long as effective weed control is achieved.
• Under a continuous cereal rotation, the impact of weeds, diseases, poor nutrition and subsequently lower yields has lowered profitability

• Trial work in other states suggests plant growth regulators (PGR’s) can manipulate plant architecture in early sown cereal crops.
• MFMG funded PGR trials at Conmurra and Millicent on wheat and barley.
• The application of PGR’s on wheat increased yield overall at Conmurra, but did not alter plant architecture, flowering or grain quality.
• This trial provided growers the opportunity to increase their knowledge on the use of PGR’s.

On these two sites, the addition of copper or zinc supplements to MAP had no effect on grain yield or grain Cu or Zn content. Based on the soil test, the Horsham site could have been considered marginal for Cu, but Zn levels were not considered limiting. Soil tests for micronutrients are unreliable and diagnosis of paddocks where crops can benefit from micronutrient supplements is also unpredictable.

• A literature review of micronutrient limitations to nodulation and N2 fixation in tropical legume crops.

• Grazing did not change grain yield or quality. Rather, moisture stress was more important in a dry finish
• In a dry year, the ratio of grain yield to crop biomass at flowering is 0.40. In an average year it is around 0.55
• Grazing slows crop maturity by one to two weeks, which meant Revenue (long season variety) was still booting during the October heat wave 

• Depending on seasonal influence, stored soil moisture, soil nutrition, stocking rate management and correct timing (early tillering at growth stage (GS) 18-22, rather than later tillering at GS 24-28), grazing can be done with no detriment to crop yield.
• However, preceding paddock history had a significant impact on subsequent crop success and needs to be considered when planning future rotations.

• Crop intensive farming systems are running down soil carbon.
• Mixed species cover cropping offers a new approach that may address the issue.
• Local guidelines need to be developed so that farmers can make informed decisions about incorporating cover crops into their farming systems.

• Crop intensive farming systems are running down soil carbon. 
• Mixed species cover cropping offers a new approach that may address the issue.
• The cover crop species grown in 2019 had no influence on the growth, yield and grain quality of the wheat over-sown in 2020.

• There was an effect of Moddus on plant height, the length of node interval and cell wall thickness when compared to the untreated area.

• A slight reduction in height can be seen throughout the trial. Samples of Corack (early-mid season), Mace (mid-season) and Justica (mid-late season) were taken from both the Moddus and untreated area.
• The Moddus did not affect the maturity of the varieties.

Allowing ewes access to some of the dual-purpose wheat sown on a mixed farm can increase gross margins
from the sheep operation by increasing stocking rates and the amount of lamb and wool produced and reducing supplementary feeding requirements.

• Grazing vetch and lucerne can be used as a management strategy to improve lamb dry matter intake and growth rates during the late spring and early winter feed gaps.
• The Grazfeed decision support tool has predicted that while both legume forages (vetch and lucerne) will increase methane output (gCH4/day), there is a reduction in methane output per unit of animal product (gCH4/day/100gADWG).
• Moisture limitations can affect herbage production of lucerne, which in turn reduces the chances of growing lambs to achieve the full potential dry matter intake in low rainfall mixed farming systems.

• The difference in soil organic carbon (SOC) changes between nine sites across eastern Australia was largely characterised by mean temperature and rainfall.
• High temperature strongly interacted with management practices (stocking rate, nitrogen application and residue incorporation) to reduce carbon sequestration despite favourable rainfall.
   

Slow pasture growth rates during winter limit the potential gross margins from autumn and early winter
lambing in southern New South Wales (NSW) by limiting stocking rates and/or increasing supplementary feed
requirements. Dual-purpose crops can reduce the winter feed gap in mixed-farming systems by increasing
the available feed in winter. The simulation software AusFarm was used to model a mixed-farming system
at Wagga Wagga with Merino ewes joined to terminal sires and grazing lucerne-subterranean clover pasture
over a 41-year period. A paddock of dualpurpose wheat was then added to the system, and ewes were
allowed to graze the wheat crop when feed on offer reached 850 kg DM/ha and before GS31.

• UAV imagery with skilled specialist analysis and programs has the potential to identify and map weed issues in paddocks.
• Grass weed patches are easier to identify in legume and pasture crops than cereal crops.
• Variability in germination and crop growth makes it harder to identify grass weed areas.
• Data capture and analysis for analytical purposes such as grass weed mapping in individual paddocks will be beyond the skills of most farm businesses unless farmers have a special interest in this area.
• Group A resistant barley grass has once again been detected at the Minnipa Agricultural Centre. Barley grass resistance to Group A herbicides has been detected three times in three years, so be aware it is present current farming systems.

• UAV imagery with skilled specialist analysis has the potential to identify weed issues in paddocks.
• It was easier to identify grass weed patches in legume and pasture crops than cereal crops.
• Data capture and analysis for analytical purposes such as grass weed mapping in individual paddocks will be beyond most farm enterprises unless farmers have a special interest in this area.
• Grass patches were more reliably identified using UAV data captured at higher resolutions.
• Barley grass resistance to Group A herbicides has been detected several times throughout the project, so be aware it may be present in current farming systems. 

 

• Six sites in north-east Victoria on acid duplex soils were sampled monthly to monitor manganese concentrations in soil and weed crops in relation to changing seasonal conditions.
• Cool and/or moisture conditions were associated with exchangeable manganese of less than 50 ppm.
• High concentrations of exchangeable manganese (120 – 250 ppm) were associated with waterlogging or prolonged hot dry conditions.
• The rate of increase in exchangeable manganese was greatest under waterlogged conditions in winter there was a lack of more than one month before significant increases were observed.
• Manganese concentrations in wheat tops reached 800 – 1200 ppm at the 3 sites most severely waterlogged during 1981.
• At the better drained sites the concentrations were less than 400 ppm.
• It seems that high levels of exchangeable manganese during summer have little effect on subsequent wheat crops.
• Waterlogging may result in increased concentrations of plant manganese but perhaps only in young plants or after prolonged exposure, by which time other effects of waterlogging may already have severely limited growth.

• Sclerotinia stem rot is a very sporadic disease in southern NSW. Variations in the level of disease can occur between districts, between years and between paddocks.
• The best indicators of a high Sclerotinia risk district are a high intensity of canola production, frequent development of Sclerotinia stem rot (e.g. every year) and reliable spring rainfall during flowering.
• Results indicate that prolonged (at least 48 hours) durations of relative humidity above 95% can trigger Sclerotinia stem rot development.
• A high level of petal infestation with Sclerotinia ascospores does not guarantee that stem rot will develop.

• At both Yarrawonga and Dooke, Victoria, there was no yield response to nitrogen application, with yields of 4.34 and 3.88t/ha respectively.
• Although there was no yield response, there was a significantly higher dry matter (DM) production and greater nitrogen offtake as a result of applying nitrogen at both sites.
• The maximum nitrogen offtake in the unfertilised crops at both sites equated (approximately) to the level of available nitrogen at the start of the season during April (assessed 0-60cm).
• The normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) response assessed at first node stage (GS31) and the subsequent divergence of NDVI suggested that both sites would benefit from additonal nitrogen; however, late moisture stress and high temperatures compromised any potential yield response.
• The NDVI canopy scores taken at Dookie during October 2015 from the 120kg N/ha plots clearly show are more rapid senescence than unfertilised crops (control) or those crops fertilised with 60 kg N/ha.

• At both Corowa, NSW and Dookie, Victoria, there were significant yield responses to applied nitrogen (N), with maximum yields of 6.25t/ha at Corowa and 6.21t/ha at Dookie.
• Both sites gave identical unfertilised yields, averaging 4.67t/ha.
• Yield responses were associated with significantly higher dry matter (DM) production and greater nitrogen offtake when 120kg N/ha was applied at both sites.
• The maximum nitrogen offtake in the unfertilised crops at both sites equated to about 70–80kg N/ha, which was similar to the 95kg N/ha available to the crop at the start of the season at Corowa and the 65kg N/ha available at the start of the season at Dookie.
• The normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) response index (NDVI of fertilised:NDVI of unfertilised plots equal to 1.17) was measured at third node stage (GS33) and equated to maximum measured yield responses of 1.5–1.6t/ha to applied nitrogen.
• Applying an extra 60kg N/ha on top of the initial 60kg N/ha at Corowa (total 120kg N/ha) produced an average yield increase of 0.17t/ha (maximum 0.25t/ha), which was not cost effective (data not shown).
• At Dookie in 2016 applying 120kg N/ha gave greater returns and was economically worthwhile based on an extra 0.64t/ha for the additional 60kg N/ha applied (data not shown).

It is estimated that by sowing grazing oats the stocking rate can be increased from 5 DSE/ha to 8 DSE/ha, which has a financial benefit of $60/ha.

• The high level of grain yield response to soil inversion is very exciting.  However, some sites have had little or no yield response while others have achieved an excellent yield response.  The key to the future success of this technique is to improve our ability to pick responsive soil types to maximise the return on investment in this technology.
• The very high level of weed control, which in some cases has been maintained for two to three years, is also very exciting.  There is no doubt that a mouldboard plough has enormous potential to decimate a weed seed bank.  However, it is imperative that the plough is set up correctly to achieve good weed seed burial.  The Smart CV site is a good example of how it can go wrong.  This site was ploughed in a rush during seeding in 2010 with a tractor that was not ideally suited to the plough (ie. not enough horsepower).  Consequently, full soil inversion did not occur and many wild radish weed seeds were left in the topsoil.  The grower knew this at the time but persisted with the trial to test the potential of the plough.  This soil is extremely non-wetting and a very big yield response was achieved. 
• The Brennan site was established in 2009 at West Moora by Dave Gartner (AgLime) using the DAFWA three furrow plough to assess the potential for lime burial with a mouldboard plough.  The site is deep yellow sand with moderate to high water repellence (water droplet penetration time 180 seconds).  Treatment with the mouldboard plough corrected the water repellence (water droplet penetration time 0 seconds).  The site was sown to wheat in 2009 and canola in 2010.  Large yield responses were measured in both years.  As yet there has been no response to lime.
• In summary, all of the growers that have purchased mouldboard ploughs have been very happy with the performance of ploughed paddocks in 2010.  Using a plough to invert the soil of a sandy, poor performing paddock every 10 to 15 years appears to be a fast, effective and economical way of renovating a paddock back to a point of high production.  Of course this machinery will have its limitations and is not a universal panacea.  However, our early studies are very encouraging.  Research into this area is ongoing and will eventually answer some of the long term questions that continue to arise.
•  
• Some of the practicalities
• Most of the growers so far have accessed machinery directly from Europe and then shipped it to Australia in sea containers.  Some growers have purchased second hand ploughs for $30,000 to $50,000. These machines have been completely dissembled and cleaned to meet quarantine standards so there are many hours of assembly work involved.  Some growers have accessed new machines for $90,000 to $130,000 for 9 to 14 furrow machines.  The cheaper machines have sheer bolt break out while the more expensive machines have hydraulic break out.  Sheer bolt machines have their limitations when it comes to rocks and stumps but have performed well nonetheless.  All ploughs imported so far are reversible and so are suited to up and back ploughing.
• A fourteen furrow machine can be set to cut 5.5 to 7 metres.  They work to a depth of 30 to 35 cm at 8 to 10 kph.  So the large machines can plough 4.5 to 7 hectares per hour at a cost of $70 to $100 / hectare (these are figures from growers).  The power requirement is 30 to 35 hp per furrow depending on soil conditions and working depth.  In good conditions a 450 hp 4WD wheel tractor can pull a 14 furrow plough but it will struggle in low soil moisture conditions.  4WD tractors often have the problem of the wide dual wheels running over the furrow which affects the depth and form of the first furrow.  Track tractors are preferred for pulling large ploughs.
• The large ploughs (12 to 14 furrow) have mainly been set up with a tool carrier that allows them to be connected to a large tractor without three point linkage.  This allows the tractor to run on level ground.  The smaller ploughs (8 to 11 furrow) are typically pulled by front wheel assist tractors in the 300 to 350 hp range with three point linkage.  In this situation, one wheel of the tractor runs in the furrow.
• There is clearly a large wind erosion risk immediately after ploughing.  Paddocks should be sown to wheat for cover immediately after ploughing (preferably the same day).  Wheat is more acid tolerant than barley and in many cases a profitable crop can be grown in the year of ploughing.  Cereals are more tolerant to sand blasting than broadleaf crops and so are the obvious choice as a cover crop.  Pay careful attention to seeding depth as it is easy to sow deep into soft soil.  Rolling of the paddock is essential after ploughing unless your hobby is towing tractors out of bogs.  Some growers are spreading seed / fertiliser and then rolling with coil packers to establish the wheat cover crop.  Relatively light rolling (eg. coil packers) is all that is necessary to firm the top 5 to 10cm of soil after ploughing.

The highest yield in the trial was produced by the 2012 Mouldboarding treatment (1st crop) and the yield advantage dropped off for the second crop (2011 mouldboard treatment)

• The season was characterized by above average rainfall conditions which provided good growing conditions for crops and also ideal conditions for weed establishment, particularly medic which was difficult to control at the site and may have masked variety differences from crop topping application timings in the trial.
• Crop topping lentils 10 days prior to the recommended ARG milky dough stage led to a significant (>50 %) yield loss when compared to the respective Nil treatments across all lentil varieties. This indicates that correct timing of this practice in critical in this crop and may be difficult to achieve in long favorable growing seasons like 2016.
• Grain yield of lentil varieties was affected similarly across the crop top timings in 2016. This conflicted with previous findings, which had shown that varieties like PBA Blitz were better suited to this practice, and highlights the large effect seasonal conditions have on this agronomic practice in lentil. Further varietal development work is required in lentil before the industry has a robust variety which is well suited to effective crop topping of ARG across environments and seasons.
• All varieties of field peas showed a high level of adaption to the agronomic practice of crop topping in the long and favorable season of 2016 which is consistent with previous findings in this crop (Southern Pulse Agronomy Results Summary, 2015)
• A significant grain yield loss was observed from crop topping chickpeas 10 days earlier and at the recommended ARG milky dough stage highlighting the poor relative suitability of this crop to the agronomic practice of crop topping. PBA has developed early maturing chickpea varieties which may be better suited to crop topping in some environments and seasons. Further evaluation is required with these lines as the ability to reduce ARG seed set in this highly uncompetitive crop is essential for its continued uptake in southern farming systems.

• Crop species were blocked and not randomized for ease of management and this experiment was only aimed at obtaining a general understanding of rhizoctonia susceptibility in different crop species. As such results will require careful interpretation and crops cannot statistically be compared with each other. Only comparisons between varieties and treatments within a crop species can be statistically compared.
• Results do however indicate a trend in increased susceptibility of some crops and varieties to Rhizoctonia than others with faba beans appearing to show a reduced ability to decrease rhizotonia levels when compared with the other crop species. This finding backed up field observations throughout the year for both crop growth and root health.
• Further work is required in this area to understand if pulse crops vary in their ability to offer a ‘break crop’ benefit in terms of rhizoctonia root disease levels to the following cereal crops..
• Initial results also suggest variety variability for reducing or hosting rhizoctonia in pulses may exist and also requires further understanding.
• An improved field screening methodology is required to achieve the above due to the patchy and random nature of this disease in the soils of SA. An associated project by SARDI root diagnostics group is underway to try and develop such a methodology.

1. Mungbean did not respond to nitrogen fertiliser with a 1 t/ha yield and a starting soil nitrogen of ~90 kg N/ha.

2. Mungbean has limited ability to maintain its water balance in high evaporative conditions. Timely in-crop rainfall/irrigation may still not maximize yields under very hot conditions during flowering to pod fill.

3. Irrigation decreased canopy temperatures by up to 8°C. 4. Charcoal rot levels increased, with the greatest rise occurring in the irrigated trial.

1. Mungbean responded to nitrogen fertiliser with a yield of +2 t/ha when planted on a low starting soil nitrogen profile (~ 50 kg N/ha).

2. One irrigation at pod-fill increased yields by up to 850 kg/ha.

3. Applying irrigation during high temperatures reduced canopy temperature, which is believed to also improve pod filling and reduce flower abortion. 4. Mungbean can increase levels of charcoal rot.

Grazing Naparoo wheat reuced grain yeild by up to 19%.

• Growers need to be aware that glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus the glyphosate metabolite AMPA, can accumulate to agronomically significant levels in certain soils.
• These findings suggest that the current risk of damage to crops in NSW is minor compared with some sites in WA that have lower rainfall and sandy soils with low organic matter.
• The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and given sufficient time to dissipate before re-application.
• However, given the frequency of glyphosate application and the persistence of trifluralin and diflufenican, further research is needed to define site-specific critical thresholds for these chemicals to avoid potential negative effects on soil function and crop production.

Native grass pastures can be successfully established to provide grazing potential for stock.